EXCAVATION 


MACHINERY,  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


'J/ill  Book  &Jm 

PUBLISHERS     OF     BOOKS      F  O  P^/ 

Coal  Age  v  Electric  Railway  Journal 
Electrical  World  v  Engineering  News-Record 
American  Machinist  The  Contractor 

Engineering 8 Mining  Journal      ^     Power 
Metallurgical  6  Chemical  Engineering 
Electrical  Merchandising 


EXCAVATION 

* 

MACHINERY 
METHODS  AND  COSTS 


INCLUDING   A    REVISION   OF 

"EXCAVATING  MACHINERY'* 


BY 
ALLEN  BOYER  McDANIEL,  S.  B. 

M.    AM.   80C.    C.    E.;    PRINCIPAL   ENGINEER,    CONSTRUCTION    DIVISION 
OF  THE   ARMT 


FIRST  EDITION 


McGRAW-HILL  BOOK  COMPANY,  INC, 

239  WEST  39TH  STREET.    NEW  YORK 


LONDON:  HILL  PUBLISHING  CO.,  LTD. 

6  &  8  BOUVERIE  ST.,  E.  C. 
1919 


- 


COPYRIGHT,  1913,  1919,  BY  THE 
McGEAW-HiLL  BOOK  COMPANY,  INC. 


THE    JM^PX,!:    PRESS    Y  O  S  1C   3?  A 


PREFACE 

A  noteworthy  development  in  the  field  of  excavating  machinery 
has  taken  place  since  the  publication  of  the  book,  "Excavating 
Machinery"  in  1913.  The  author  has  received  so  many  requests 
for  information  concerning  the  more  recent  types  of  excavators 
and  the  newer  uses  of  older  types,  that  it  has  seemed  desirable  to 
present  this  work. 

The  new  book  embodies  some  of  the  material  of  the  former 
work,  but  is  entirely  re-cast  and  largely  re-written.  The  new 
text  has  two  general  divisions;  the  first  comprising  a  description 
of  the  construction,  method  and  typical  cost  of  operation  of  each 
type  of  excavator,  and  the  second  embodying  a  comparative 
study  of  the  efficient  and  economic  use  of  the  different  types  of 
machines  in  the  various  fields  of  construction  work.  The  author 
has  endeavored  to  describe  the  makes  and  types  of  excavators 
commonly  used  in  all  classes  of  work.  He  has  not  attempted 
to  describe  or  even  mention  every  make  of  excavator,  but  every 
type  has  been  treated  in  sufficient  detail  to  give  a  clear  idea  of 
its  construction  and  field  of  work. 

The  cost  data  are  not  intended  to  be  an  arbitrary  guide  for 
the  use  of  any  type  of  excavator  in  any  stated  class  of  work. 
The  conditions  and  circumstances  attending  work  of  this 
character  are  so  variable,  and  there  are  usually  so  many 
unforeseen  factors  which  affect  the  progress  of  a  job,  that 
information  of  this  kind  can  only  be  suggestive.  The  illus- 
trative "costs  of  operation"  given  in  the  first  division,  are 
merely  typical  outlines.  The  quantities  should  be  modified  to 
suit  local  conditions  and  combined  with  ruling  prices  to  secure 
usable  cost  data  for  any  definite  case.  In  the  second  division 
the  cost  data  have  been  selected  to  offer  a  variety  of  conditions 
on  recent  examples  of  earthwork.  No  attempt  has  been  made 
to  standardize  these  data  or  to  formulate  the  results  for  any 
series  of  operations  for  any  type  of  machine.  The  author  has 
derived  many  equations  from  his  experience,  but  hesitates  to 
publish  them  on  account  of  their  possible  misuse.  Several 


vi  PREFACE 

formulae  prepared  by  well-known  authorities  are  given,  but  the 
reader  is  cautioned  against  rule-of-thumb  application  of  these, 
as  well  as  of  the  general  cost  information. 

The  bibliography  at  the  end  of  each  chapter  has  been  revised 
and  brought  up-to-date.  Although  not  complete,  the  references 
given  are  sufficiently  varied  and  comprehensive  to  give  a  general 
survey  of  the  subject. 

This  work  is,  of  necessity,  a  compilation  of  information  from 
various  sources,  and  the  author  has  tried  to  give  due  acknowl- 
edgment. He  expresses  his  appreciation  of  the  information 
received  from  the  many  references  and  the  assistance  given  by 
the  various  societies,  companies  and  individuals. 

A.  B.  McD. 
WASHINGTON,  D.  C., 
March,  1919. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

PREFACE.  v 


DIVISION  I 

PARTI 
SCRAPERS,  GRADERS  AND  SHOVELS 

CHAPTER  I 
TOOLS  FOR  LOOSENING  AND  HAND  EXCAVATION 

ART.  1.  Tools  for  Loosening 2 

ART.  2.  Mattock 2 

ART.  3.  Pick 2 

ART.  4.  Plow.    .    .                                                      2 

ART.  5.  Shovel 4 

ART.  6.  Resume* 4 

ART.  7.  Bibliography 5 

CHAPTER  II 
DRAG  AND  WHEEL  SCRAPERS 

ART.  8.  General  Description 6 

ART.  9.  Drag  Scraper 6 

ART.  10.  Field  of  Use  .    .    .    . 8 

ART.  11.  Fresno  Scraper 8 

ART.  12.  Field  of  Use 9 

ART.  13.  Two-wheel  Scraper 10 

ART.  14.  Field  of  Use 12 

ART.  15.  Four-wheel  Scraper 12 

ART.  16.  Field  of  Use 16 

ART.  17.  Resume" 16 

ART.  18.  Bibliography 17 

CHAPTER  111 
BLADE  OR  ROAD  GRADERS 

ART.  19.  General  Description 19 

ART.  20.  Two-wheel  Grader 19 

ART.  21.  Field  of  Use 20 

vii 


viii  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

ART.  22.  Four-wheel  Blade  Grader 20 

ART.  23.  Reclamation  Grader 22 

ART.  24.  Method  of  Operation 22 

ART.  25.  Field  of  Use 24 

ART.  26.  Cost  of  Operation 24 

ART.  27.  Resume" 24 

ART.  28.  Bibliography  (see  ART.  33) 25 

CHAPTER  IV 
ELEVATING  GRADERS 

ART.  29.  General  Description 26 

ART.  30.  Field  of  Use 28 

ART.  31.  Cost  of  Operation 28 

ART.  32.  Resume 28 

ART.  33.  Bibliography 29 

CHAPTER  V 
CAPSTAN  PLOWS 

ART.  34.  General  Description 31 

ART.  35.  Method  of  Operation 32 

ART.  36.  Cost  of  Operation 34 

ART.  37.  Resume 34 

ART.  38.  Bibliography 35 

CHAPTER  VI 

POWER  SHOVELS 

ART.  39.  General  Description 36 

First  Class — Fixed  Platform  Shovels 

ART.  40.  Construction 37 

ART.  41.  Method  of  Operation 47 

ART.  42.  Field  of  Use 51 

ART.  43.  Cost  of  Operation 51 

Second  Class — Revolving  Shovels 

ART.  44.  Construction 53 

ART.  45.  Method  of  Operation 57 

ART.  46.  Field  of  Use 58 

ART.  47.  Cost  of  Operation 59 

ART.  48.  Electrically  Operated  Shovels 60 

ART.  49.  Field  of  Usefulness 61 

ART.  50.  Resume 63 

ART.  51.  Bibliography 66 


CONTENTS  ix 

/ 

PART  II 
DREDGES 

CHAPTER  VII 
SCRAPER  EXCAVATORS 

PAGE 

ART.  52.  Classification 72 

ART.  53.  General  Description 72 

A.  Stationary  Scraper  Excavator 

ART.  54.  Varieties .    .  72 

ART.  55.  Traction  Excavator  with  Two  Booms 72 

ART.  56.  Small  Traction  Ditcher .73 

ART.  57.  Small  Scraper  Bucket-excavator   .    .                                        .    .  74 

ART.  58.  Walking  Scoop  Dredge 70 

B.  Revolving  Excavator 

ART.  59.  Drag-line  Excavator 80 

ART.  60.  Method  of  Operation   .    .  98 

ART.  61.  Cost  of  Operation 99 

ART.  62.  Field  of  Usefulness ....  99 

ART.  63.  Jacobs'  Guided-line  Excavator 101 

ART.  64.  Walking  Drag-line  Excavator  ....  .102 

ART.  65.  Locomotive  Crane  Excavator 104 

ART.  66.  Method  of  Operation   ...                                          106 

ART.  67.  Cost  of  Operation 106 

ART.  68.  Field  of  Usefulness .107 

ART.  69.  Resume" 107 

ART.  70.  Bibliography .    .  108 

CHAPTER  VIII 

TEMPLET  EXCAVATOR 

ART.  71.  Preliminary Ill 

Open  Channel  Excavator 

ART.  72.  General  Description Ill 

ART.  73.  Method  of  Operation 114 

ART.  74.  Cost  of  Operation 114 

ART.  75.  Field  of  Usefulness 115 

Levee  Builder 

ART.  76.  General  Description 115 

ART.  77.  Method  of  Operation 117 

ART.  78.  Cost  of  Operation 117 

ART.  79.  Field  of  Use 117 

ART.  80.  Resume" 118 

ART.  81.  Bibliography 118 


x  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  IX 
TRENCH  EXCAVATORS 

PAGE 

ART.  82.  Classification 120 

I.  PIPE  TRENCH  EXCAVATORS 

A.  Continuous  Bucket-excavator 

ART.  83.  Preliminary 120 

ART.  84.  Endless  Chain  Excavator 120 

ART.  85.  Method  of  Operation 123 

ART.  86.  Cost  of  Operation 124 

ART.  87.  Field  of  Usefulness  .../......." 125 

ART.  88.  Bucket  Wheel  Excavator 126 

B.  Trestle  Cable  Excavator 

ART.  89.  Trestle  Cable  Excavator.    . 130 

ART.  90.  Method  of  Operation 132 

ART.  91.  Cost  of  Operation 133 

ART.  92.  Field  of  Usefulness 133 

ART.  93.  Carson-Trainor  Excavator 133 

C.  Trestle  Track  Excavator 

ART.  94.  General  Description 135 

ART.  95.  Method  of  Operation 136 

ART.  96.  Cost  of  Operation 136 

ART.  97.  Field  of  Usefulness 137 

II.  DRAINAGE-TILE  TRENCH  EXCAVATORS 

ART.  98,  Preliminary 138 

ART.  99.  Endless-chain  Type 138 

ART.  100.  Method  of  Operation 140 

ART.  101.  Cost  of  Operation .    . 141 

ART.  102.  Field  of  Usefulness 142 

ART.  103.  Wheel  Type 142 

ART.  104.  Resume 142 

ART.  105.  Bibliography .143 

CHAPTER  X 
WHEEL  EXCAVATORS 

ART.  106.  Preliminary 146 

ART.  107.  General  Description . 146 

ART.  108.  Method  of  Operation. 147 

ART.  109.  Cost  of  Operation . 150 

ART.  110.  Resume"   .    .    . .    . 151 

ART.  111.  Bibliography  (see  ART.  105)..  ..    .".'..' .'.  151 


CONTENTS  xi 

( 

CHAPTER  XI 
CABLBWAYS 

PAGE 
ART.  112.  Preliminary.    .    .  152 

A.  Drag-line  Cableways 

ART.  113.  General  Description 152 

ART.  114.  Method  of  Operation .    154 

ART.  115.  Double-tower  Excavator 157 

ART.  116.  Cost  of  Operation.    ...  .158 

ART.  117.  Field  of  Usefulness .    .    159 

B.  Fall-line  Cableway 

ART.  118.  Preliminary .159 

ART.  119.  General  Description .159 

ART.  120.  Method  of  Operation .    .    .  .    .    161 

ART.  121.  Cost  of  Operation 162 

ART.  122.  R6sum6 164 

ART.  123.  Bibliography 164 

CHAPTER  Xll 
DIPPER  DREDGES 

ART.  124.  Classification 166 

ART.  125.  Preliminary 166 

ART.  126.  General  Description 166 

ART.  127.  Method  of  Operation 189 

ART.  128.  Cost  of  Operation 190 

ART.  129.  Field  of  Usefulness 191 

ART.  130.  Bibliography 193 

CHAPTER  XIII 
LADDER  DREDGES 

ART.  131.  Preliminary 197 

ART.  132.  Classification 197 

ART.  133.  Construction  .    . 197 

ART.  134.  Method  of  Operation 205 

ART.  135.  Cost  of  Operation 207 

ART.  136.  Field  of  Usefulness 208 

ART.  137.  Bibliography 209 

CHAPTER  XIV 

HYDRAULIC  DREDGES 

ART.  138.  Preliminary 212 

ART.  139.  Classification 212 

ART.  140.  Construction ,   214 


xii  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

ART.  141.  Method  of  Operation 220 

ART.  142.  Cost  of  Operation .221 

ART.  143.  Field  of  Usefulness 222 

ART.  144.  Bibliography 222 

CHAPTER  XV 

SUBAQUEOUS  ROCK  DRILLS 

ART.  145.  Preliminary.    .    , 229 

ART.  146.  Classification 229 

I.  LOBNITZ  ROCK  CUTTER 

ART.  147.  Construction 230 

ART.  148.  Method  of  Operation ..23] 

II.  DRILL  BOATS 

ART.  149.  Preliminary 231 

ART.  150.  Construction 232 

ART.  151.  Method  of  Operation .235 

ART.  152.  Cost  of  Operation 238 

ART.  153.  Resume v 240 

ART.  154.  Bibliography 240 

CHAPTER  XVI 
CAR  AND  WAGON  LOADERS 

ART.  155.  Preliminary .242 

ART.  156.  General  Description 243 

ART.  157.  Method  of  Operation 245 

ART.  158.  Cost  of  Operation 247 

ART.  159.  Resume 247 

ART.  160.  Bibliography 248 


DIVISION  II 

CHAPTER  XVII 
HIGHWAY  CONSTRUCTION 

ART.  161.  Preliminary 250 

ART.  162.  Scrapers 250 

ART.  163.  Use  of  Four-wheel  Scrapers  in  Illinois 252 

ART.  164.  Blade  Graders 253 

ART.  165.  Use  of  Blade  Graders  in  Iowa 256 

ART.  166.  Elevating  Graders 256 


/               CONTENTS  xiii 

PAGE 

ART.  167.  Relative  Cost  of  Use  of  Elevating  Graders  with  Animal 

'    and  Tractor  Power 259 

ART.  168.  Power  Shovels 260 

ART.  169.  Use  of  Revolving  Shovel  in  California 260 

ART.  170.  Use  of  Revolving  Shovel  in  Iowa 262 

ART.  171.  Revolving  Shovel  in  Shallow  Excavation 263 

ART.  172.  Continuous  Bucket-excavators 264 

ART.  173.  Resume 267 

ART.  174.  Bibliography   .    .                                   269 

CHAPTER  XVIII 
RAILROAD  CONSTRUCTION* 

ART.  175.  Preliminary 272 

ART.  176.  Scrapers .  272 

ART.  177.  Use  of  Wheel  Scrapers 274 

ART.  178.  Graders 279 

ART.  179.  Use  of  Elevating  Grader  in  Colorado 280 

ART.  180.  Use  of  Elevating  Grader  in  New  York .    .  282 

ART.  181.  Power  Shovels 284 

ART.  182.  Use  of  Steam  Shovel  near  Newcomb,  Montana 289 

ART.  183.  Use  of  Steam  Shovel  in  Illinois 290 

ART.  184.  Drag-line  Excavators 291 

ART.  185.  Use  of  Drag-line  Excavator  in  South  Dakota 292 

ART.  186.  Use  of  Drag-line  Excavator  in  Ohio 293 

ART.  187.  Railway  Ditching  Trains.    .    .    .  ' 293 

ART.  188.  Special  Ditching  Machine 298 

ART.  189.  Resum6 299 

ART.  190.  Bibliography 300 

CHAPTER  XIX 
RECLAMATION  WORK 

ART.  191.  Preliminary 303 

I.  IRRIGATION  WORKS 

ART.  192.  Scrapers 304 

ART.  193.  Use  of  Scrapers  in  Idaho 304 

ART.  194.  Use  of  Drag  and  Fresno  Scrapers  in  Colorado 306 

ART.  195.  Use  of  Fresno  Scrapers  in  Nevada 306 

ART.  196.  Use  of  Four-wheel  Scrapers  in  Oregon 307 

ART.  197.  Use  of  Four-wheel  Scrapers  in  Colorado 307 

ART.  198.  Use  of  Four-wheel  Scrapers  in  Illinois 308 

ART.  199.  Graders 309 

ART.  200.  Use  of  Elevating  Grader  in  Montana 311 

ART.  201.  Power  Shovels 311 

ART.  202.  Use  of  Steam  Shovel  in  Texas .312 


xiv  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

ART.  203.  Use  of  Steam  Shovel  in  Utah 312 

ART.  204.  Use  of  Atlantic  Steam  Shovel  in  Idaho • .    .    .   313 

ART.  205.  Scraper  Bucket  Excavators 314 

ART.  206.  Use  of  Drag-line  Excavator  in  Nevada 315 

ART.  207.  Use  of  Drag-line  Excavators  in  Idaho 315 

ART.  208.  Use    of    Electrically    Operated    Drag-line    Excavators    in 

Montana 316 

ART.  209.  Use  of  Drag-line  Excavator  in  Idaho .   321 

ART.  210.  Templet  Excavators 323 

ART.  211.  Use  of  Templet  Excavators  in  Colorado 324 

ART.  212.  Floating  Excavators 325 

II.  DRAINAGE  WORKS 

ART.  213.  Scrapers 325 

ART.  214.  Graders 325 

ART.  215.  Use  of  Two-wheel  Grader  in  Mississippi 326 

ART.  216.  Use  of  Elevating  Grader  in  South  Dakota 326 

ART.  217.  Use  of  Elevating  Grader  in  Minnesota 326 

ART.  218.  Templet  Excavators 327 

ART.  219.  Use  of  Templet  Excavator  in  Illinois 327 

ART.  220.  Use  of  Templet  Excavator  in  North  Dakota 328 

ART.  221.  Wheel  Excavators 330 

ART.  222.  Use  of  Wheel  Excavator  in  Florida 330 

ART.  223.  Dry-land  Dredge 331 

ART.  224.  Scraper  Bucket-excavators 331 

ART.  225.  Use  of  Drag-line  Excavator  in  South  Dakota 332 

ART.  226.  Use  of  Drag-line  Excavators  in  Florida 333 

ART.  227.  Floating  Dipper  Dredges 334 

ART.  228.  Use  of  Floating  Dipper  Dredge  in  Colorado 335 

ART.  229.  Use  of  Floating  Dipper  Dredge  in  Florida 337 

ART.  230.  Use  of  Floating  Dipper  Dredge  in  South  Dakota 337 

ART.  231.  Ladder  Dredges . 340 

ART.  232.  Use  of  Ladder  Dredge  in  Washington 340 

ART.  233.  Hydraulic  Dredges 342 

ART.  234.  Grab  Bucket  Dredges 343 

ART.  235.  Use  of  Grab  Bucket  Dredge  in  Louisiana 344 

III.  FLOOD  PREVENTION  AND  FLOOD  PROTECTION  WORKS 

ART.  236.  Scrapers 345 

ART.  237.  Use  of  Fresno  Scrapers  in  Arizona 345 

ART.  238.  Use  of  Wheel  Scrapers  in  Missouri 345 

ART.  239.  Use  of  Fresno  and  Wheel  Scrapers  in  Wyoming 346 

ART.  240.  Graders 347 

ART.  241.  Use  of  Elevating  Graders  in  South  Dakota 347 

ART.  242.  Use  of  Elevating  Graders  in  Idaho 349 

ART.  243.  Power  Shovels 349 

ART.  244.  Use  of  Steam  Shovel  in  South  Dakota 350 

ART.  245.  Use  of  Steam  Shovel  in  Maine 351 

ART.  246.  Use  of  Power  Shovels  in  New  York ' .   353 


CONTENTS  XV 

PAGE 

ART.  247.  Scraper  Bucket-excavators 353 

ART.  248.  Use  of  Drag-line  Excavator  in  Louisiana 354 

ART.  249.  Use  of  Drag-line  Excavator  in  Missouri 355 

ART.  250.  Grab  Bucket  Dredges 358 

ART.  251.  Use  of  Grab  Bucket  Dredge  in  Louisiana 358 

ART.  252.  Use  of  Grab  Bucket  Dredge  in  California 360 

ART.  253.  Templet  Levee  Builder 360 

ART.  254.  Cableways 363 

ART.  255.  Use  of  Single  Tower  Excavator  in  Louisiana 364 

ART.  256.  Use  of  Cableway  Excavators  in  Mississippi 364 

ART.  257.  Floating  Dipper  Dredges 366 

ART.  258.  Hydraulic  Dredges 366 

ART.  259.  Use  of  Hydraulic  Dredges  in  California .367 

ART.  260.  Use  of  Hydraulic  Dredge  on  Mississippi  River 368 

ART.  261.  Use  of  Hydraulic-Fill  Method  in  Washington 369 

ART.  262.  R&ume' 371 

ART.  263.  Bibliography .374 

CHAPTER  XX 

RIVERS,  HARBORS  AND  CANALS 

ART.  264.  Preliminary 378 

I.  RIVERS 

ART.  265.  General - 378 

ART.  266.  Floating  Dipper  Dredges 379 

ART.  267.  Use  of  Dipper  Dredges  on  Ohio  River 379 

ART.  268.  Use  of  Clam-shell  Dredges  in  North  Carolina 380 

ART.  269.  Use  of  Dipper  Dredge  in  Tennessee 381 

ART.  270.  Ladder  Excavators 383 

ART.  271.  Use  of  Ladder  Dredges  in  Canada 383 

ART.  272.  Use  of  Ladder  Dredge  in  Wisconsin 384 

ART.  273.  Hydraulic  Dredges 386 

ART.  274.  Use  of  Hydraulic  Dredge  in  Washington 386 

ART.  275.  Use  of  Hydraulic  Dredges  on  Upper  Mississippi  River .    .    .  388 

ART.  276.  Use  of  Suction  Dredge  on  Lower  Mississippi  River.           .    .  388 

II.  HARBORS 

ART.  277.  General 390 

ART.  278.  Floating  Dipper  Dredges 391 

ART.  279.  Use  of  Dipper  Dredge  in  New  York 391 

ART.  280.  Use  of  Dipper  Dredges  in  British  Columbia 393 

ART.  281.  Ladder  Dredges 394 

ART.  282.  Use  of  Ladder  Dredge  in  British  Columbia 395 

ART.  283.  Use  of  Ladder  Dredge  in  Massachusetts 395 

ART.  284.  Hydraulic  Dredges 396 

ART.  285.  Use  of  Hydraulic  Dredges  in  British  Columbia 397 

ART.  286.  Use  of  Electrically  Operated  Hydraulic  Dredge  in  Minnesota  398 


xvi  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

ART.  287.  Subaqueous  Rock  Breaking 400 

ART.  288.  Use  of  Rock  Cutters  and  Drill  Boat  in  England 400 

ART.  289.  Use  of  Rock  Cutter  and  Drill  Boat  in  British  Columbia  .    .  402 

ART.  290T  Use  of  Drill  in  Shallow  Water  in  British  Columbia 403 

III.  CANALS 

ART.  291.  Preliminary 403 

ART.  292.  Scrapers 404 

ART.  293.  Use  of  Wheel  Scrapers  on  the  Chicago  Drainage  Canal.  .  .  404 

ART.  294*  Graders 405 

ART.  295.  Use  of  Elevating  Graders  on  Chicago  Drainage  Canal  .  .  .  405 

ART.  296.  Power  Shovels 406 

ART.  297.  Use  of  Steam  Shovel  in  Ontario,  Canada 406 

ART.  298.  Use  of  Power  Shovels  on  Panama  Canal 408 

ART.  299.  Use  of  Power  Shovels  on  Cape  Cod  Canal 411 

ART.  300.  Scraper  Bucket-excavators 412 

ART.  301.  Use  of  Drag-line  Excavators  on  New  York  State  Barge  Canal  412 
ART.  302.  Use  of  Drag -line  Excavators  on  Calumet-Sag  Canal.  .  .  .413 

ART.  303.  Tower  Cable  way  Excavators 414 

ART.  304.  Use  of  Tower  Excavator  on  New  York  State  Barge  Canal.  .  415 
ART.  305.  Use  of  Double  Tower  Excavator  on  Chicago  Main  Drainage 

Canal 416 

ART.  306.  Floating  Dipper  Dredges 418 

ART.  307.  Use  of  Dipper  Dredges  on  Panama  Canal 418 

ART.  308.  Use  of  Djpper  Dredges  on  New  York  State  Barge  Canal.  .  419 

ART.  309.  Ladder  Dredges 420 

ART.  310.  Use  of  Steel  Pontoon  Ladder  Dredge  on  New  York  State 

Barge  Canal 421 

ART.  311.  Use  of  Ladder  Dredge  on  Panama  Canal 423 

ART.  312.  Hydraulic  Dredges 424 

ART.  313.  Use  of  Hydraulic  Dredges  on  New  York  State  Barge  Canal  424 

ART.  314.  Use  of  Hydraulic  Dredges  on  Panama  Canal 429 

ART.  315.  R6sum6 430 

ART.  316.  Bibliography 431 

CHAPTER  XXI 

MUNICIPAL  IMPROVEMENTS 

ART.  317.  Preliminary 436 

I.  TRENCH  EXCAVATION 

A.  Pipe-trench  Excavation 

ART.  318.  General .    .  >  ... 436 

ART.  319.  Scrapers 437 

ART.  320.  Power  Shovels 437 

ART.  321.  Use  of  Steam  Shovel  in  New  York 437 

ART.  322.  Use  of  Steam  Shovel  in  Chicago,  Illinois 439 


CONTENTS  xvii 

PAGE 
ART.  323.  Use  of  Steam  Shovel  for  Backfilling  in  Minneapolis, 

Minnesota 440 

ART.  324.  Grab  Bucket  Excavators 441 

ART.  325.  Use  of  Locomotive  Crane  in  Indiana 442 

ART.  326.  Use  of  Locomotive  Cranes  in  Kentucky 443 

ART.  327.  Backfilling  Machines 444 

ART.  328.  Continuous  Bucket  Excavators 445 

ART.  329.  Use  of  Trench  Excavators  in  Illinois 446 

ART.  330.  Use  of  Trench  Excavator  in  Pennsylvania 447 

ART.  331.  Use  of  Trench  Excavator  in  Colorado 448 

ART.  332.  Trestle  Cable  Excavators 449 

ART.  333.  Use  of  Trestle  Cable  Excavator  in  British  Columbia, 

Canada 449 

ART.  334.  Trestle  Track  Excavators 450 

ART.  335.  Use  of  Trestle  Track  Excavator  in  Illinois 450 

ART.  336.  Tower  Cableway  Excavators 451 

ART.  337.  Use  of  Cableway  Excavator  in  Washington,  D.  C 451 

B.  Tile-trench  Excavation 

ART.  338.  General 454 

ART.  339.  Use  of  Tile  Trench  Excavator  in  Ohio 455 

ART.  340.  Use  of  Tile  Trench  Excavator  in  Indiana 456 

ART.  341.  Use  of  Tile  Trench  Excavator  hi  Wisconsin 456 

II.  FOUNDATION  AND  BASEMENT  EXCAVATION 

ART.  342.  General 458 

ART.  343.  Scrapers 458 

ART.  344.  Use  of  Wheel  Scrapers  in  Connecticut 458 

ART.  345.  Power  Shovels 464 

ART.  346.  Use  of  Steam  Shovel  in  Massachusetts 465 

ART.  347.  Resume" 471 

ART.  348.  Bibliography  (see  ART.  105)  . 473 

CHAPTER  XXII 
QUARRIES,  OPEN-CUT  MINES,  GRAVEL  PITS  AND  BRICK  YARDS 

ART.  349.  Preliminary. 474 

ART.  350.  Use  of  Excavating  Machinery  in  the  Cement  Quarry ....  474 

ART.  351.  Handling  of  Excavated  Material  in  the  Cement  Quarry.    .  484 

ART.  352.  Open-cut  Mining 498 

ART.  353.  Use  of  Power  Shovels  in  Kansas , 499 

ART.  354.  Use  of  Steam  Shovel  in  Iron  Mines  in  Minnesota 501 

ART.  355.  Use  of  Drag-line  Excavators  in  Michigan 503 

ART.  356.  Excavation  of  Sand  and  Gravel  Pits 503 

ART.  357.  Use  of  Steam  Shovel  in  Gravel  Pit  in  Illinois 505 

ART.  358.  Use  of  Steam  Shovels  in  Sand  Pit  in  Wisconsin 506 

ART.  359.  Excavation  of  Clay  and  Shale  Pits 507 


xviii  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

ART.  360.  Use  of  a  Drag-line  Excavator  in  Georgia 50& 

ART.  361.  Use  of  Revolving  Steam  Shovel  in  North  Dakota 509 

ART.  362.  Re'sume' 510 

ART.  363.  Bibliography 512 

CHAPTER  XXIII 

TUNNELS  AND  UNDERGROUND  MINES 

ART.  364.  General 515 

ART.  365.  Clay  Excavator 515 

ART.  366.  Use  of  Bonnet  Excavator  in  Michigan .  516 

ART.  367.  Rock  Excavators 517 

ART.  368.  Use  of  Air-operated  Shovels  in  Pennsylvania 518 

ART.  369.  Use  of  Air-operated  Shovels  on  the  Pennsylvania  Tunnels, 

New  York 519 

ART.  370.  Special  Rock  Excavators 521 

ART.  371.  Shoveling  Machines 522 

ART.  372.  Use  of  Low-clearance  Shoveling  Machine  in  Africa 523 

ART.  373.  Re'sume' 524 

ART.  374.  Bibliography * 525 


EXCAVATION 
MACHINERY,  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

DIVISION  I 

A  discussion  of  the  Construction,  Methods  and  Cost  of  Opera- 
tion of  Various  Types  of  Excavators. 


EXCAVATION 
MACHINERY,  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

CHAPTER  I 
TOOLS    FOR    LOOSENING    AND    HAND    EXCAVATION 

1.  Tools  for  Loosening. — The  lighter  soils  of  alluvial  and  glacial 
drift  origin;  loam,  sand  and  soft  clay,  can  be  excavated  with  the 
smaller  types  of  excavators  without  preliminary  loosening.    How- 
ever, very  dense  and  hard  soils  must  be  first  be  loosened  unless 
the  larger  power  excavators  are  to  be  used. 

The  tools  and  methods  used  in  loosening  soils  largely  depend  on 
the  nature  and  magnitude  of  the  work,  the  kind  of  soil,  the 
amount  of  material  to  be  handled,  the  depth  of  cut,  etc.  The 
hand  tools  ordinarily  used  are  the  mattock,  the  pick,  the  shovel 
and  the  plow. 

2.  Mattock. — The  mattock  is  a  long-handled  tool,  shaped  like 
a  pick-axe,  but  having  blades  instead  of  points;  the  blades  being 
set  at  right  angles  to  each  other.     This  tool  is  used  for  grubbing, 
cleaving  and  trimming  the  surface  preparatory  to  the  loosening. 

3.  Pick. — The  pick  is  the  universally  used  tool  for  the  loosen- 
ing of  dense,  hard  material,  especially  in  restricted  places  as 
narrow  trenches,  pits  and  corners  where  the  plow  or  power  excava- 
tors cannot  be  utilized.  This  tool  is  provided  with  either  two 
points  or  a  point  and  a  chisel-shaped  end.     The  amount  of  ma- 
terial which  can  be  loosened  in  a  10-hr,  day  by  one  laborer 
depends  on  the  kind  of  soil,  the  efficiency  of  the  man,  the  super- 
vision, the  working  conditions  as  to  space,  climate,  etc.;  a  fair 
average  will  be  10  cu.  yd.  of  indurated  gravel  or  clay  and  20  cu, 
yd.  of  dense  clay. 

1 


MACHWEBY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


4.  Plow.  —  The  plow  is  the  most  serviceable  tool  for  the  loosening 
of  dense  soils  where  there  is  unrestricted  space  for  its  use.  There 
are  several  types  of  plow,  each  style  being  adapted  for  a  particu- 
lar class  of  work.  The  ordinary  mold-board  type,  used  for  agri- 
cultural purposes,  is  suitable  for  ordinary  soils  but  for  very  dense, 


FIG.  1. — Ordinary  mold-board  plow.     (Courtesy  of  Austin  Mfg.  Co.) 

hard  soils  a  plow  with  a  heavy,  wedge-shaped  share,  known  as 
a  " railroad"  or  " pavement"  plow  is  necessary.  The  former 
type  of  plow  is  shown  in  Fig.  1  and  the  latter  type  in  Fig.  2.  A 
two-horse  plow  with  a  driver  and  man  to  hold  the  plow  will  loosen 
about  400  cu.  yd.  of  average  soil  per  10-hr,  day.  If  the  material 


FIG.  2. — Typical  railroad  plow.     (Courtesy  of  Austin  Mfg.  Co.) 


is  dense,  tough  clay,  the  output  per  10-hr  day  with  a  four-horse 
team  and  three  men  will  be  about  200  cubic  yards.  The  follow- 
ing table  gives  the  cost  of  plowing  per  10-hr,  working  day,  under 
average  conditions. 


TOOLS  FOR  LOOSENING  AND  HAND  EXCAVATION 

Labor: 

Team,  plow,  and  driver $4 . 00 

Plow  holder..  1.75 


Total,  labor  cost $5. 75 

Repairs,  depreciation,  etc 1 . 25 

Total  cost..  $7.00 


Total  amount  of  material  loosened 400  cu.  yd. 

Cost  of  loosening  material,  $7.00  -^  400  =  1 .75  cents  per  cu.  yd. 


abor: 


Team,  plow  and  driver $4 . 00 

Plow  holder 1 . 75 

Beam  rider ...  1 . 75 


Total  labor  cost $7 . 50 

Repairs,  depreciation,  etc 1 . 50 

Total  cost *'.)  00 

Total  amount  of  material  loosened 200  cu.  yd. 

Cost  of  loosening  material,  $9.00  -r  200  =  $0.045  per  cu.  yd. 


6.  Shovel. — Shovels  are  made  with  either  long  or  short  handles 
and  round,  square  or  pointed  blades.  The  round-ended  blade 
is  more  efficient  in  the  removal  of  stiff,  dense  soils  and  should  be 
used  with  a  short  D-handle.  The  long-handled,  round-ended 
shovel  is  the  best  type  for  ordinary  soils  and  for  the  greater  lift- 
ing conditions.  The  amount  of  material  which  can  be  shoveled 
per  10-hr,  day  depends  on  the  condition  and  nature  of  the  soil, 
the  method  of  disposal,  the  type  of  shovel  used,  the  efficiency 
of  the  man,  etc.  A  laborer  can  shovel  loose  material  and  elevate 
it  upon  a  platform  or  into  a  wagon  at  the  rate  of  from  15  cu. 
yd.  to  10  cu.  yd.  per  10-hr,  day  for  lifts  of  from  3  ft.  to  5  ft., 
respectively.  These  quantities  should  be  reduced  to  from  8 
cu.yd.  to  5  cu.  yd.  for  a  dense,  tough  clay  or  a  hard  gravel. 

6.  Resume. — The  following  data1  gives  the  cost  of  loosening 
and  shoveling  for  various  kinds  of  soil  conditions. 

1  From  Earth  Excavation  by  Gillette,  Mining  Engineers'  Handbook,  Peele. 


EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


COST  OF  PLOWING 
(Wages  $1.50  and  horse-keep  $1.00  per  10-hr,  day) 


Soil 

Labor 

Cu.  yd. 
per  hour 

Labor  cost, 
per  cu.  yd., 
cents 

Loam        .               .    . 

1  driver,  1  holder, 

2  horses  

50 

1  0 

Gravel  and  loam  
Fairly  tough  clay  

1  driver,  1  holder, 
2  horses  
1  driver,  1  holder, 
2  horses  

35 

25 

1.4 
2  0 

Very  hard  soil  

1  driver,  1  holder, 
4-6  horses,  and  2  men  on 
plow   beam   of    rooter 
plow 

15-20 

5-8 

Ordinary  soil  

1   driver,   6   horses,   on 
eane  nlow  .  . 

40 

1.9 

COST  OF  LOADING  BY  SHOVELING 

Method 

Cu.  yd. 
per 
man-hour 

Cost  per  cu.  yd. 
(Wages,  15  cents 
per  hour) 
Cents 

Authority 

]Mud  into  wheelbarrows 

0.8 
1.7-2.7 
1.6-4.8 
2.2 
2.1 
2.8 
2.0 
1.8 
1.3 
1.5-2.0 
2.8 
1.0 
1.2 
1.4 
2.0 
1.25 
1.5 
1.75 

19.0 

7.0 
5.0 
7.0 
7.5 
5.25 
7.5 
8.25 
11.3 
8.5 
(d) 
15.0 
12.5 
10.75 
7.5 
(e) 
10.0 
8.6 

M.  Ancelin 
M.  Ancelin 
M.  Ancelin 
M.  Ancelin 
Cole  (a) 
Gillepsie 
D.  K.  Clark 
Gillette  (b) 
Gillette  (c) 
J.  M.  Brown 
J.  M.  Brown 
E.  Morris 
E.  Morris 
E.  Morris 
G.  A.  Parker 
G.  A.  Parker 
Gillette 
Gillette 

Gravel  into  wheelbarrows  .  . 

Earth  into  wheelbarrows  

Earth  into  wheelbarrows,  aver.  .  . 
Earth  (all  kinds)  into  wagons... 
Earth  into  wheelbarrows,  aver.  .  . 
Earth  (all  kinds)  into  wagons  .  .  . 
Sand  into  cars  from  high  face  .  .  . 
Plowed  gravelly  soil  into  wagons 
Iowa  soil                        

Iowa  soil 

Clay  and  gravel  into  carts  

Loam  into  carts           •   .    

Sandv  earth  into  carts 

Loose  sand  into  carts  
Clay,  tenacious,  Chicago  
Hardpan  into  low  dump  cars  — 
Average  earth 

(a)    10    miles,    Erie    Canal.     (6)    10,000   cu.    yd.    bank   measurement, 
(c)  20,000  cu.  yd.  in  embankment,     (d)  A  rush  job.     (e)  Spaded  out  and 
handled  with  forks. 

TOOLS  FOR  LOOSENING  AND  HAND  EXCAVATION         5 

7.  Bibliography. — The   reader   should    consult   the   following 
for  further  information: 

Books 

1.  "American   Civil   Engineers'   Pocket   Book,"   edited  by   MANSFIELD 
MERRIMAN,   3d   edition,  published  in  1916  by  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  New 
York.     1496  pages,  1047  figures,  4>£  in.  X  7  in.     Cost,  $5.00. 

2.  "Earthwork  and  Its  Cost,"  by  H.  P.   GILLETTE,  2d  edition,  pub- 
lished in  1912  by  McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  New  York.     60  figures, 
,5  in.  X  8  in.     Cost,  $2.00. 

3.  "Handbook  of  Cost  Data,"  by  H.  P.  GILLETTE,  published  by  McGraw- 
Hill  Book  Company,  New  York.     1900  pages,  4^  in.  X  7  in.     Cost,  $5.00. 

Magazine    Articles 

1.  Comments   on   the    Use   of  the    Mattock.     Engineering-Contracting, 
January  15,  1908.     1800  words. 

2.  Earth    Excavation.     Zeitschrift    des    Vereines    Deutscher    Ingenieure , 
September  3,  1910.     Illustrated,  7200  words.     Serial. 


CHAPTER  II 


DRAG  AND  WHEEL  SCRAPERS 

8.  General  Description. — The  scraper  consists  of  a  steel  pan 
with  a  cutting  edge  and  rests  directly  on  the  surface  or  is  sus- 
pended from  a  frame  mounted  on  either  two  or  four  wheels. 
The  scraper  is  usually  hauled  by  two  horses,  and  a  snatch  team 
of  horses  or  a  traction  engine  are  used  to  load  in  dense,  hard 
soils. 

The  following  types  of  scrapers  are  in  common  use  and  will  be 
described;  the  drag  or  slip  scraper,  the  Fresno  scraper,  the  two- 
wheel  scraper  and  the  four-wheel  scraper. 

9.  Drag  Scraper. — The  drag  scraper  consists  of  a  steel  scoop 
with  a  rounded  back  and  curved  bottom.     The  latter  is  either 
provided  with  runners  or  reinforced  with  a  sheet  of  hard  steel, 
known  as  a  " double  bottom."     Wooden  handles  are  attached 
to  the  sides  near  the  rear  of  the  scoop  and  are  used  by  the  driver 
in  its  operation.     A  heavy  bail  provides  for  the  attachment  of  a 
team  of  horses.     The  following  table  gives  the  description  and 
cost  of  the  various  sizes  of  the  ordinary  drag  scraper: 


No. 

Description 

Capacity, 
cu.  ft. 

Weight, 
Ib 

Cost,  f.o.b. 
factory 

1 

With  runners 

7 

95 

$11.50 

2 

With  runners 

5 

85 

11.00 

3 

With  runners 

3% 

75 

9.75 

1 

With  double  bottom 

7 

100 

13.00 

2 

With  double  bottom 

5 

90 

12.50 

Drag  scrapers  are  generally  used  in  gangs  of  from  3  to  10, 
the  driver  usually  loading  and  dumping  the  scoop.  In  the  con- 
struction of. an  embankment,  when  a  laborer  is  employed  to 
spread  out  the  material  at  the  dump,  he  assists  in  the  emptying 
of  the  scrapers.  The  material  can  be  excavated  directly  when  the 
soil  is  a  loam,  soft  clay  or  sand.  For  harder  soils  the  material 
must  first  be  loosened  with  a  plow.  The  scrapers  will  not  ex- 

6 


DRAG    AND    WHEEL    SCRAPERS  7 

cavate  and  carry  to  the  spoil  bank  an  amount  equal  to  the  ca- 
pacities given  in  the  above  table.  Rarely  does  a  scraper  go  out 
of  the  excavation  filled  and  the  material  is  generally  in  a  loose 
condition.  At  least  25  per  cent,  should  be  allowed  for  the  shrink- 
age of  the  loose  material  when  compacted  in  an  embankment. 

The  author  recommends  the  following  rule  for  the  cost  of 
moving  earth  with  drag  scrapers. 

For  50  ft.  hauls  or  less  the  cost  of  moving  1  cu.  yd.  of  earth 
will  be  10  cents.  For  each  additional  50  ft.  of  haul  add  2  cents. 
When  the  soil  is  hard,  add  3  cents  to  the  figures  derived  from  the 
above  rule,  which  applies  only  to  average  soils. 


FIG.  3. — Front  view  of  drag  scraper.     (Courtesy  of  Western   Wheeled 
Scraper  Co.) 

Drag  scrapers  are  very  efficient  up  to  hauls  of  100  ft.  and  can 
be  satisfactorily  used  up  to  200-ft.  hauls.  A  two-horse  team  and 
scraper  can  move  in  a  10-hr,  working  day,  the  following  average 
amount  of  loose  material: 

For  a  haul  of  25  ft 70  cu.  yd. 

For  a  haul  of  50  ft 60  cu.  yd. 

For  a  haul  of  100  ft 50  cu.  yd. 

For  a  haul  of  150  ft 40  cu.  yd. 

For  a  haul  of  200  ft 35  cu.  yd. 

Drag  scrapers  are  especially  adapted  to  borrowing  from  the 
side  of  an  embankment  or  wasting  from  shallow  cuts  or  ditches. 
The  cost  of  maintenance  of  a  drag  scraper  is  small  and  its  useful 
life  is  limited  largely  by  the  physical  condition  of  the  scoop. 


8          EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


Figures  3,  4  and  5  show  the  front  view  and  rear  views  of  a 
well-known  make  of  drag  scraper. 

10.  Field  of  Use. — The  drag  scraper  has  been  generally  used 
in  this  country  during  the  past  40  years  in  the  construction  of 
railroads,  highways  and  waterways.  In  recent  years  its  field  of 
operation  has  been  extended  to  include  irrigation  and  drainage 


FIG.  4. — Rear  view  of  drag  scraper 
with  double  bottom.  (Courtesy  of 
Austin  Mfg.  Co.) 


FIG.  5. — Rear  view  of  drag  scrapei 
with  runners.  (Courtesy  of  Austin 
Mfg.  Co.) 


canals,  large,  shallow  excavations  for  reservoirs,  cellars,  etc. 
This  type  of  scraper  is  not  economical  in  the  moving  of  earth 
over  200  ft.  and  for  jobs  whose  magnitude  is  greater  than  about 
50,000  cu.  yd. 

11.  Fresno  Scraper. — The  Fresno  scraper  has  a  long,  narrow 
pan  which  rests  directly  on  the  surface  in  loading  but,  in  dumping 
and  returning  from  the  dump,  is  carried  on  adjustable  runners. 
Figures  6  and  7  illustrate  the  Fresno  scraper  in  loading  and  dump- 
ing positions  and  the  following  table  gives  the  various  sizes, 
capacities,  weights  and  costs  of  a  typical  make: 


DRAG    AND    WHEEL    SCRAPERS 


No.                          Description 

Capacity, 
cu.  ft. 

Weight, 
ID. 

Cost,  f.o.b. 
factory 

1 

5  ft.  cutting  edge 

18 

300 

$37.00 

2 

4  ft.  cutting  edge 

14 

270 

30.00 

3 

3%  ft.  cutting  edge 

12 

245 

28.00 

The  Fresno  scraper  is  generally  operated  in  groups  of  from 
2  to  10,  depending  upon  the  character  and  magnitude  of  the 
work.  Each  scraper  is  operated  by  a  driver  and,  on  heavy  work, 
a  laborer  assists  in  both  loading  and  dumping  while  in  light  work 
the  driver  loads  his  own  scraper. 


FIG.  6.  FIG.  7. 

FIG.  6. — Buck  scraper,  ready  to  load.     (Courtesy  of  Western  Wheeled  Scraper  Co.) 
FIG.  7. — Buck  scraper,  dumped. 

The  economical  haul  of  a  Fresno  is  about  300  ft.  It  requires 
less  time  to  load  and  unload  this  type  of  scraper  than  it  does  a 
two-horse  wheeler,  but  the  expense  of  the  two  extra  horses  on  a 
four-horse  Fresno  balances  these  items  when  the  haul  exceeds 
300  ft. 

12.  Field  of  Use. — The  Fresno  scraper  is  generally  more  effi- 
cient than  the  drag  scraper  since  it  is  easier  to  load  and  moves  more 
earth.  For  side-hill  work  this  scraper  is  especially  efficient, 
as  it  will  often  push  ahead  of  itself  a  large  mass  of  loose  material. 

In  the  arid  West  the  Fresno  has  had  a  wide  field  of  usefulness 
in  the  excavation  of  large,  shallow  canals.  Under  average  work- 
ing conditions,  the  amount  of  sandy-clay  soil  moved  by  a  scraper 
will  vary  from  60  to  125  cu.  yd.  with  a  haul  of  from  75  to!50  ft., 
during  a  10-hr,  day,  at  a  cost  of  from  7  to  10  cents  per  cu.  yd. 


10       EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


13.  Two-wheel  Scraper.  —  The  two-wheel  scraper  consists  of 
a  steel  box  mounted  on  a  single  pair  of  wheels  and  equipped  with 
levers  so  that  the  box  may  be  raised,  lowered  and  dumped,  while 


FIG.  8. — Wheel  scraper,  ready  to  load.     (Courtesy  of  Western  Wheeled 

Scraper  Co.} 


FIG.  9. — Wheel  scraper,  returning  to  pit.     (Courtesy  of  Western  Wheeled 
Scraper  Co.) 

the  scraper  is  in  motion.  An  automatic  end-gate  is  sometimes 
attached  to  the  front  of  the  pan  to  prevent  the  loss  of  material, 
especially  on  steep  slopes. 


DRAG    AND    WHEEL    SCRAPERS 


11 


Figures  8  and  9  show  two  positions  of  the  scraper  and  the  fol- 
lowing table  gives  the  various  sizes,  capacities,  weights  and  costs 
of  a  well-known  make: 


No. 

Capacity, 
cu.  ft. 

Weight, 
Ib. 

Cost, 
f.o.b. 
factory 

1 

9 

500 

$50.00 

2 

12 

650               60.00 

2X 

14 

700               63.00 

3 

16 

800               65.00 

The  wheel  scraper  is  an  excellent  earth  mover  up  to  hauls  of 
800  ft.  and  is  more  efficient  than  the  drag  scraper  for  hauls  over 
200  ft.  The  No.  3  wheeler  requires  the  use  of  a  snatch-team  in 
ordinary  material  and  a  No.  2  in  hard  material,  and  for  long  hauls 
this  size  of  scraper  is  the  most  economical.  For  average  soil  and 
hauls  not  greater  than  400  ft.,  the  No.  2  wheeler  is  the  most  effi- 
cient. The  average  load  (p)ace  measurement)  carried  by  the 
wheeler  is  as  follows:  No.  1,  %  cu.  yd.;  No.  2,  Y±  cu.  yd.;  No. 
3,  H  cu.  yd. 

As  in  the  case  of  drag  scrapers,  the  wheeler  never  leaves  the  ex- 
cavation fill  ed  to  its  rated  capacity.  For  long  hauls  and  where  the 
material  is  tough  and  hard  to  handle,  it  is  economical  to  use  shovel- 
ers  to  heap  up  the  bowls  of  the  scraper,  before  the  teams  start. 

The  author  recommends  the  following  rule  for  the  cost  of 
moving  earth  with  two-wheel  scrapers. 

For  100-ft.  hauls  or  less  the  cost  of  moving  1  cu.  yd.  of  earth 
will  be  10  cents.  For  each  additional  100  ft.  of  haul  add  2  cents. 
When  the  soil  is  hard  add  3  cents  to  the  figures  given  by  the  above 
rule,  which  applies  only  to  average  soils. 

A  two-horse  team  and  scraper  can  move  in  a  10-hr,  working 
day,  the  following  average  amounts  of  loose  material : 

For  a  haul  of  100  ft 50  cu.  yd. 

For  a  haul  of  200  ft 50  cu.  yd. 

For  a  haul  of  300  ft 40  cu.  yd. 

For  a  haul  of  400  ft 30  cu.  yd. 

Two-wheel  scrapers  should  work  in  groups  of  from  4  to  6 
for  hauls  up  to  400  ft.  and  in  gangs  of  from  8  to  12  for 
longer  hauls.  One  man  is  necessary  to  load  and  dump  the  scraper 
and  in  hard  or  tough  soils  two  men  are  required  to  load  the  larger 
size  machines. 

14.  Field  of  Use. — The  two-wheel  scraper  has  about  the  same 
scope  of  efficient  operation  as  the  drag  scraper;  the  construction  of 


12       EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

levees  and  enbankments,  the  making  of  shallow  excavations,  and 
the  borrowing  of  material  for  relatively  short  hauls.  The  econom- 
ical operation  of  the  wheeler  is  limited  to  hauls  of  from  200  ft. 
to  800  ft.  and  for  jobs  not  exceeding  50,000  cu.  yd.  in  magnitude. 

The  two-wheel  scraper  is  especially  serviceable  in  the  construc- 
tion of  small  railroad  and  reservoir  embankments  and  levees  where 
the  continual  movement  of  the  teams  over  the  dump  is  an  im- 
portant factor  in  the  compacting  of  the  material. 

15.  Four-wheel  Scraper. — The  four-wheel  scraper  consists  of 
a  pan,  having  a  capacity  of  either  ^  cu.  yd.  or  1  cu.  yd.,  and 
hung  by  chains  on  a  frame,  which  is  carried  by  two  trucks.  The 


FIG.  10. — Maney  four-wheel  scraper.     (Courtesy  of  Baker  Mfg.  Co.) 

pan  is  hung  so  that  the  front  or  cutting  edge,  in  the  loading  posi- 
tion, touches  the  surface.  The  front  wheels  are  small  and  under- 
hung so  that  short  and  sharp  turns  may  be  made.  The  pan  is 
operated  by  four  levers,  which  are  all  within  easy  reach  of  the 
driver  and  operator,  who  is  seated  just  behind  and  on  the  right- 
hand  side  of  the  rear  truck.  The  motive  power  is  a  team  of 
horses.  A  snatch-team  or  a  traction  engine  is  used  in  loading. 
The  pan  when  filled  is  elevated  automatically  by  a  sprocket 
chain.  The  scraper  is  then  moved  to  the  dump  where  the  pan  is 
elevated  to  the  proper  height,  when  an  automatic  trip  throws  the 
clutch  on  the  axle  out  of  gear,  stopping  the  winding  and  thus  pre- 
venting the  machine  from  becoming  spool  bound.  The  load  is 
dumped  through  a  lever-operated  gate  in  the  rear  of  the  pan  while 
the  scraper  moves  over  the  dump. 


DRAG    AND    WHEEL    SCRAPERS 


13 


The  Maney  four-wheel  scraper,  with  pan  in  loading  position 
is  shown  in  Fig.  10,  and  the  following  table  gives  the  sizes, 
capacities,  weights,  and  costs  of  this  type  of  excavator: 


No. 


Capacity, 
cu.  ft. 


13.5 
27.0 


Weight, 
Ib. 


1350 
2350 


Coat 


$240.00 
$375.00 


The  four-wheel  scraper  is  about  100  per  cent,  more  efficient 
than  the  two-wheel  scraper  for  200-ft.  hauls,  and  the  efficiency 
increases  with  the  length  of  haul.  This  scraper  can  be  economic- 
ally used  for  hauls  up  to  2000  ft. 

TABLE  I. — COST  PER  CUBIC  YARD  OF  SCRAPER  WORK 
I.  Drag  Scraper 


Character  of  the  soil 


Length  of  haul 


50  ft. 


100  ft. 


150  ft. 


200ft. 


Averagesoil $0.10        $0.12        $0.14        $0.16 

Hard  soil 0.13          0.15          0.17          0.19 

II.  Two-wheel  Scraper 

Length  of  haul 
Character  of  soil 

100  ft.  200  ft.  300  ft.  400  ft. 

Averagesoil $0.10        10.12        $0.14        $0.16 

Hard  soil 0.13          0.15          0.17          0.19 

Length   of  haul 
Character  of  soil 

500  ft.  600  ft.          700  ft.  800  ft. 

Averagesoil : $0.18        $0.20        $0.22        $0.24 

Hardsoil 0.21          0.23          0.25          0.27 

NOTE. — The  rules  on  pages  7  and  11,  and  the  above  table  are  based  on 
the  following  costs: 

Team  and  driver $5 . 00  per  10  hr.  day. 

Snap  man 2 . 50  per  10  hr.  day. 

Foreman 5 . 00  per  10  hr.  day. 

Laborer  for  dumping 2.50  per  10  hr.  day. 


14       EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


III.     Four- 


Cost  of  moving  dirt  with  Baker- 


Length  of   haul 

2000' 

1500' 

1400' 

1300' 

1200' 

1100' 

No.  of 
machs. 

Daily  cost 

20 

1119.50 

528  c.  y. 
22.6* 

15 

94.50 

396  c.y. 
23.6* 

528  c.  y. 
17.9* 

14 

89.50 

370  c.y. 
24.2* 

493  c.  y. 
18.2* 

528  c.  y. 
16.9* 

13 

84.50 

343  c.  y.  458  c.  y. 
24.6*      18.4* 

490  c.y. 
17.2* 

528  c.y. 
16.0* 

12 

79.50 

317  c.y. 
25.1* 

422  c.  y. 
18.8* 

453  c.y. 
17.5* 

487  c.  y. 
16.3* 

528  c.y. 
15.1* 

11 

74.50 

387  c.  y. 
19.3* 

415  c.y. 
17.9* 

447  c.y. 
16.7* 

484  c.  y. 
15.4* 

528  c.y. 
14.1* 

10 

69.50 

352  c.y. 
19.7* 

378  c.  y. 
18.4* 

406  c.  y. 
17.1* 

440  c.  y. 
15.8* 

480  c.y. 
14.5* 

9 

64.50 

317  c.y. 
20.3* 

340  c.  y. 
18.9* 

365  c.  y. 
17.7* 

396  c.  y. 
16.2* 

432  c.  y. 
14.9* 

8 

59.50 

282  c.  y. 
21.1* 

300  c.  y. 
19.8* 

325  c.  y. 
18.3* 

352  c.y. 
16.9* 

384  c.  y. 
15.5* 

7 

54.50 

246  c.y. 
22.1* 

264  c.  y. 
20.6* 

284  c.  y. 
19.2* 

308  c.y  . 
17.7* 

336  c.y. 
16.2* 

6 

49.50 

211  c.y. 
23.5* 

226  c.  y. 
21.9* 

244  c.  y. 
20.3* 

264  c.  y. 
18.7* 

288  c.  y. 
17.2* 

5 

44.50 

176  c.y. 
25.3* 

189  c.  y. 
23.6* 

203  c.  y. 
21.9* 

220  c.y. 
20.2* 

240  c.  y. 
18.5* 

4 

39.50 

3 

34.50 

2 

29.50 

NOTE. — Above  yardage  figured  on  basis  of  Teams  traveling  20  miles  per 
10-hr,  day. 

Cost  Based  on  Following  Data. 

Team  and  Driver  @$  5.00          Per  10  hr.  day. 

Rented  Tractor  &  Operator  @$12.00          Per  10  hr.  day. 

Snap  Man  @$  2.50          Per  10  hr.  day 

Foreman  @$  5.00          Per  10  hr.  day 


DRAG    AND    WHEEL    SCRAPERS 


15 


wheel  Scraper 


Maney  four-wheel  1-yd.  scraper 


1000' 

900' 

800' 

700' 

600' 

5W 

400' 

300' 

200' 

NOTE  —  Figures  in  upper  part  of  each  square  re- 
present number  of  cubic  yards  moved  per  day 
Lower  figures  represent  the  cost  per  cubic  yard. 

528  o.  y. 
13.2* 

475  c.y.  528  c.y. 
13.81      12.21 

422  c.  y. 
14.1,5 

469  c.  y. 
12.7* 

528  c.  y. 
11.3* 

370  c.  y.  411  c.  y. 
14.7*      13.3* 

462  c.y.  528  c.y. 
11.8*      10.3* 

317  c.y. 
15.6* 

352  c.y. 
14.1* 

396  c.  y.  452  c.  y.  528  c.  y. 
12.2*      10.9*        9.4* 

264c.y.'292c.y. 
16.8*      15.2* 

330  c.  y.  377  c.  y. 
13.5*      11.8* 

528  c.  y. 
10.1* 

528  c.y. 
8.4* 

211  c.y. 
18.7* 

235  c.  y. 
16.8* 

264  c.  y. 
14.9* 

301  c.  y. 
13.1* 

352  c.  y. 
11.2* 

472  c.  y. 
9.4* 

528  c.  y. 
7.5* 

226  c.y. 
15.3* 

264  c.  y. 
13.0* 

317  c.y. 
10.9* 

396  c.y. 
8.7* 

528  c.  y. 
6.5* 

176  c.y. 
16.8* 

211  c.y. 
14.1* 

264  c.  y. 
11.2? 

352  c.  y. 

8.4* 

528  c.y. 
5.6* 

EXAMPLE. — 6  Baker-Maney's  on  a  600  Foot  Haul. 

To  find  cost  per  cubic  yard  consult  column  headed  600  feet,  run  down  this 
column  until  it  intersects  column  marked  "6"  on  the  extreme  left.  This  is 
shown  as  9.4  cents,  the  cost  per  cubic  yard.  No.  Cubic  Yards  =  528. 

No  plowing  is  necessary  when  using  tractor  for  loading  on  ordinary  jobs. 


16       EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

16.  Field  of  Use. — The  four-wheel  scraper  is  the  most  efficient 
form  of  scraper  for  shallow  excavation,  where  the  total  amount  of 
material  to  be  moved  is  less  than  50,000  cu.  yd,  and  the  soil  con- 
ditions do  not  require  the  use  of  a  power  excavator. 

In  the  construction  of  roads,  railroad  cuts  and  canals  where 
the  cut  varies  from  1  ft.  to  4  ft.,  and  the  haul  is  from  500 
to  1000  ft.,  7  to  10  scrapers,  loaded  by  a  traction  engine,  can 
excavate  and  move  from  500  to  800  cu.  yd.  of  clay  and  loam,  per 
10-hr,  day,  at  a  cost  of  from  10  to  15  cents  per  cu,  yd. 

17.  Resume. — The  field  of  usefulness  of  the  scraper  is  large 
and    varied.     In   the    construction    of   railroad   embankments, 
levees  for  river  protection  and  shallow  cuts,  the  scraper  has  been 
in  successful  use  for  about  40  years.     For  the  excavation  of 
broad,   shallow  ditches  for  drainage  and  irrigation  works,  the 
scraper  has  come  into  a  limited  use  during  the  past  decade.     It 
is  a  familiar  tool  in  the  grading  of  streets,  the  digging  of  cellars 
for  buildings  and  the  excavation  of  large  shallow  areas  for  res- 
ervoirs and  the  foundations  of  various  structures.     The  scraper 
is  an  efficient  and  economical  type  of  excavator  where  the  yard- 
age is  small,  roughly  speaking,  less  than  50,000  cu.  yd.  and 
within  the  scope  of  the  type  employed.     Considering  the  first  part 
of  the  above  statement,   a  dry-land   excavator  can  generally 
be  used  for  the  construction  of  levees,  when  the  job  is  greater 
than  50,000  cu.  yd.,  at  a  cost  of  about  50  per  cent,  less  than  with 
a  scraper.     In  a  similar  manner,   a  steam  shovel  supersedes 
the  scraper  in  the  excavation  of  large  foundations,  street  and 
railroad  cuts,  etc.     In  the  excavation  of  small  ditches,  the  wheel 
excavator  is  a  much  more  efficient  machine  and  for  large  ditches, 
the  dipper  dredge  supplants  the  scraper. 

The  Fresno  scraper  has  been  used  with  considerable  success 
in  the  arid  West  on  canal  and  embankment  construction.  This 
is  especially  true  of  side-hill  work,  when  the  ditch  lies  partly  in 
cut  and  partly  in  fill.  The  scraper  works  downhill,  pushing  a 
large  amount  of  earth  ahead  of  itself  into  the  embankment,  which 
is  consolidated  by  the  tramping  of  the  teams.  For  ditches  from 
8  to  20  ft.  wide  on  the  bottom,  side  slopes  of  1^  to  1,  and  less, 
and  for  depths  of  from  3  to  8  ft.,  the  Fresno  scraper  will,  under 
average  working  conditions,  remove  about  100  cu.  yd.  during  a 
10-hr,  day  and  at  an  operating  cost  of  about  8  cents  per  cubic 
yard. 


DRAG    AND    WHEEL    SCRAPERS  17 

The  drag  scraper  can  operate  economically  up  to  a  haul  of  200 
ft.,  the  two- wheel  scraper  up  to  a  haul  of  800  ft.,  and  the  four- 
wheel  scraper  up  to  a  haul  of  2000  feet. 

The  cost  of  excavation  is  rather  difficult  to  formulate  and  one 
upon  which  authorities  differ.  Table  I  is  based  upon  the 
rules  given  on  pages  7  and  1 1 ,  and  will  be  found  to  be  approximately 
correct,  under  average  working  conditions. 

18.  Bibliography. — For  additional  information,  see  the  fol- 
lowing: 

Books. 

1.  "American    Civil    Engineers'    Pocket  Book,"  edited  by  MANSFIELD 
MERRIMAN,  3d  edition,  published  in  1916  by  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  New  York. 
1496  pages,  1047  figures,  4^  in.  X  7  in.     Cost,  $5.00. 

2.  "The  Chicago  Main  Drainage  Channel,"  by  C.  S.  HILL,  published  in 
1896  by  Engineering  News  Publishing  Company,  New  York.     129  pages, 
105  figures,  Sin.  X  11  in. 

3.  "Construction  of  Roads  and  Pavements,"  by  T.  R.  AGO,  published  in 
1916  by  McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  New  York.     432  pages,  116  figures, 
6  in.  X  9  in.     $3.00. 

4.  "Earthwork  and  Its  Cost,"  by   H.   P.   GILLETTE,  2d  edition,  pub- 
lished in  1912  by  McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  New  York.     60  figures, 

5  in.  X  8  in.     Cost,  $2.00. 

5.  "Economics  of  Road  Construction,"  by  H.  P.  GILLETTE,  published  in 

1906  by  Engineering  News  Publishing  Company,  New  York.     41  pages,  9 
figures. 

6.  "Elements  of  Highway  Engineering,"  by  A.  H.  BLANCHARD,  published 
in  1915  by  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  New  York.     497  pages,  202  figures,  6  in. 
X  9  in.     Cost,  $3.00. 

7.  "Handbook    of    Cost    Data,"   by   H.    P.    GILLETTE,    published   by 
McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  New  York.     1900  pages,  4%  in.    X   7  in. 
Cost,  $5.00. 

8.  "Roads  and  Pavements,"  by  IRA  O.   BAKER,  published  in  1914  by 
John  Wiley  &  Sons,   New  York.     698  pages,   171  figures,  6  in.  X  9  in. 
Cost,  $4.50. 

9.  "Text-Book  on  Highway  Engineering,"  by  BLANCHARD-DROWNE,  pub- 
lished in  1911  by  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  New  York.     761  pages,  234  figures, 

6  in.  X  9  in.     Cost,  $4.50. 

Magazine  Articles 

1.  Bowford's  and  Evershed's  Patent  Excavator.     The  Engineer,  London, 
February  11,  1898.     Illustrated,  1200  words. 

2.  A  Cable-power  Scraper  for  Earth  Excavation,  C.  G.  NEWTON.     Engi- 
neering News,  October  20,  1904.     Illustrated,  500  words. 

3.  Cost   of  Wheel-scraper  Work.     Engineering-Contracting,    August  28, 

1907  and  July  22,  1908. 

2 


18       EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

4.  The  Economic  Handling  of  Earth  by  Wheel  and  Fresno  Scrapers. 
Engineering  &  Contracting,  June  3,  1914.     Illustrated,  7000  words. 

5.  Excavating  with  Large  Scrapers.     Engineering  News,  December  25, 
13.     Illustrated,  1000  words. 

6.  Excavation    with    Fresno    Scrapers.     Engineering-Contracting,    July 

15,  1908,  November  3,  1909  and  November  24,  1909. 

7.  Examples  of  High  and  Low  Cost  of  Wheel-scraper  Work,  with  Com- 
ments  on  the   Efficiency  of  the   Work   Done.     Engineering-Contracting, 
July  22,  1908.     1300  words. 

8.  A  Four-wheel  Scraper  of  Large  Capacity  for  Excavation  and  Grading. 
Engineering  News,  May  19,  1910.     1000  words. 

9.  Hints  on  Handling  Wheel  Scrapers.     Engineering-Contracting,  August 
28,  1907.     1500  words. 

10.  Low  Cost  of  Excavation  with  Fresno  Scrapers  by  WALTER  N.  FRICK- 
TAD.     Engineering-Contracting,    t November     3,    1909.     Illustrated,    2000 

words. 

11.  Methods  and  Cost  of  Moving  Earth  with  Fresno  Scrapers  in  Arizona, 
and  the  Cost  of  Trimming  Slopes.     Engineering-Contracting,   October  2, 
1907.     1500  words. 

12.  Methods  and  Costs  of  Loading  Dump  Wagons  with  Scrapers  and  the 
Design  of  a  Loading  Platform.     Engineering-Contracting,  January  23,  1907. 
1200  words. 

13.  Methods  of  Excavation  for  Buildings.     Engineering  Record,  January 

16,  1915.     Illustrated,  4000  words. 

14.  Operation  Analysis  of  New  Machines  Which  Cheapen  the  Moving 
of  Earth  on  Road  Work.     Engineering  Record,  July  31,  1915.     Illustrated, 
3000  words. 

15.  Scraper  Excavators.     Engineering  News,  March  21, 1907.     Illustrated, 
2000  words. 


CHAPTER  III 

BLADE  OR  ROAD  GRADERS 

19.  General  Description. — The  blade  or  road  grader  consists 
of  a  scraper  blade  suspended  from  a  frame  mounted  on  either 
two  or  four  wheels.  The  blade  is  so  hung  that  it  may  be  placed 
at  various  angles,  horizontally  or  vertically,  and  reversed  with 
the  back  of  the  blade  facing  the  front  of  the  machine.  The  blade 
is  operated  by  a  set  of  levers  or  wheels  which  are  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  driver  or  a  special  operator.  The  grader  is  hauled 
by  4  to  6  horses,  although  for  the  larger  size  graders  or  for 
stiff  soils,  a  traction  engine  is  often  used  and  furnishes  a  steadier 
and  more  efficient  power. 


Fio.  11.— Two- wheel  grader.     (Courtesy  of  Baker  Mfg.  Co.) 

The  scraping  or  blade  grader  is  used  primarily  for  the  making 
of  successive  shallow  cuts  and  the  gradual  movement  of  the  ma- 
terial from  a  lower  to  a  higher  elevation. 

20.  Two-wheel  Grader. — The  simplest  form  of  a  scraping 
or  blade  grader  is  the  two-wheel  grader,  which  consists  of  a  two- 
wheel  truck  carrying  an  adjustable  blade.  The  blade  can  be 
raised  or  lowered  and  adjusted  vertically  and  horizontally.  The 

19 


20       EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

wheels  are  flanged  to  prevent  the  lateral  sliding  of  the  machine 
on  a  slope.  The  machine  is  hauled  by  two  or  four  horses  and  is 
controlled  by  one  man,  who  is  seated  at  the  rear  and  acts  as  driver 
and  operator. 

A  well-known  make  of  two-wheel  grader  is  shown  in  Fig.  11. 
This  machine  weighs  700  Ib.  and  costs  $115.00  f.o.b.  factory. 

21.  Field  of  Use. — The  two-wheel  grader  can  be  economically 
used  in  the  grading,  leveling  and  crowning  of  earth  roads,  the 
excavation  of  ditches,  the  grubbing  and  leveling  of  land  and  the 
cleaning  of  gutters  and  pavements.     The  machine  is  especially 
adapted  to  the  excavation  of  small  road,  drainage  and  irrigation 
ditches.     In  a  sandy-clay  or  loam,  the  average  capacity  of  a 
grader  operated  by  a  two-horse  team  and  driver  will  be  about  J£ 
mile  of  a  V-shaped  ditch,  24  in.  deep,  in  a  10-hr,  day. 

22.  Four-wheel  Blade  Grader. — The  four-wheel  grader  con- 
sists of  an  adjustable  scraper  blade  carried  by  a  frame  which  is  sup- 
ported on  two-wheel  trucks.     The  front  wheels  are  arranged  to 
cut  under  the  frame  so  that  short  turns  may  be  made.     The  blade 
is  suspended  by  a  pivoted  frame  which  is  operated  by  levers  at  the 
rear  of  the  machine.     By  means  of  a  simple  operating  mechanism, 
the  blade  may  be  set  at  any  angle  with  the  direction  of  the  draft, 
raised  or  lowered  to  any  height  or  angle  and  tilted  to  the  front 
or  rear.     The  rear  axle  is  generally  made  telescoping,  so  that  the 
frame  of  the  machine  may  be  shifted  to  either  side.     In  road  con- 
struction, this  provides  for  the  bearing  of  a  rear  wheel  against 
the  side  of  the  ditch,  to  resist  the  side  draft. 

The  tractive  power  may  be  horses  or  a  traction  engine;  the 
latter  being  more  efficient  in  dense  hard  soils. 

The  following  table  gives  the  sizes,  weights  and  costs  of  a 
typical  make  of  four-wheel  grader. 


Description 

Blade 

Weight 

Cost,  f.o.b. 
factory 

Light                                       

15  in.  X  6  ft. 

1400  Ib. 

$175  .  00 

Standard  

18  in.  X  7  ft. 

2700  Ib. 

250.00 

Larce 

18  in.  X  8  ft. 

4000  Ib. 

325  .  00 

Vsry  lar£6 

16  in.  X  12  ft. 

6100  Ib. 

750  00 

Light,  standard  and  very  large  road  graders  are  shown  in  Figs. 
12,  13,  and  14,  respectively. 


BLADE    OR    ROAD   GRADERS 


21 


FIG.   12. — Light    four-wheel    grader.     (Courtesy    of    Western    Wheeled 
Scraper  Co.) 


FIG.  13. — Standard     road     grader.     (Courtesy    of    Western     Wheeled 
Scraper  Co.) 


FIG.  14. — Very  large  road  grader.     (Courtesy  of  Austin  Mfg.  Co.) 


22       EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

23.  Reclamation  Grader. — In  moving  the  earth  from  a  lower 
to  a  higher  elevation,  the  lateral  thrust  of  the  material,  espe- 
cially in  stiff  soils,  tends  to  displace  the  machine.  To  counter- 
act this  side-draft,  a  grader  with  pivoted  axles  is  often  used. 
This  machine,  by  keeping  its  wheels  always  in  a  vertical  position, 
utilizes  its  weight  to  counteract  the  side  pressure  of  the  earth 
on  the  mold  board.  This  type  of  grader,  known  as  the  Recla- 
mation grader,  has  proved  very  efficient  in  the  excavation  of 


FIG.   15. — Reclamation  grader  excavating  irrigation  ditch. 

irrigation  ditches.  The  blade  is  hung  so  as  to  provide  a  much" 
greater  latitude  in  the  vertical  adjustment  of  the  blade  than  is 
obtained  with  the  ordinary  blade  grader.  The  grader  is  hauled 
by  12  horses  or  a  traction  engine,  weighs  3000  Ib.  and  costs 
$1000.00.  Figure  15  shows  this  ditcher  in  operation  during  the 
construction  of  a  large  ditch  near  Broomfield,  Colorado. 

24.  Method  of  Operation. — The  blade  grader  is  operated  so  as 
to  excavate  a  thin  slice  of  earth  from  one  side  of  cut  and  move  it 
laterally  by  the  side  thrust  of  the  oblique  blade.  Considerable 
lateral  movement  of  excavated  material  may  be  secured  in  this 


BLADE    OR    ROAD   GRADERS 


23 


24       EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

way  by  making  several  trips  or  rounds  of  the  grader.  The  various 
steps  in  the  construction  of  a  road  are  shown  in  Fig.  16.  The 
grader  commences  excavation  at  the  side  of  the  road  with  the  blade 
tilted  and  turned  so  as  to  act  as  a  plow.  The  second  trip  is 
made  with  the  blade  lowered  to  a  slight  vertical  angle  and  with 
the  front  and  rear  wheels  in  line,  the  machine  follows  along 
the  line  of  the  first  furrow.  The  third  round  consists  in  the  mov- 
ing of  the  earth  from  the  berm  toward  the  center  of  the  road, 
and  is  made  with  the  rear  wheels  near  the  center  of  the  road. 
The  final  round  is  made  with  the  blade  set  square  across  the  road 
the  so  set  as  to  smooth  down  and  even  off  the  loose  earth  brought 
to  the  center  of  the  road. 

25.  Field  of  Use. — The  road  grader  is  used  principally  in  the 
construction  and  maintenance  of  roads.     This  type  of  excavator 
is  especially  serviceable  when  used  in  coordination  with  the 
wheeled  scraper  or  elevating  grader  to  finish  the  surface   of 
the  excavation.     In  the  regrading  of  old  roads  where  the  side 
ditches  are  narrow  and  deep,  the  blade  grader  is  the  only  machine 
that  can  be  efficiently  used. 

The  blade  grader  has  been  adapted  in  recent  years;  to  the 
leveling  of  the  surface  preparatory  to  the  excavation  of  ditches, 
the  cutting  down  of  banks,  the  excavation  of  lateral  irrigation 
ditches,  and  the  cleaning  of  snow  from  the  streets  in  cities. 

26.  Cost  of  Operation. — The  two- wheel  grader  will  excavate 
V-shaped  ditches  up  to  a  depth  of  24  in.,  at  an  average  cost  of 
3  cents  per  rod.     Two  horses  and  one  man  at  an  operating  cost  of 
about  $4.00  per  day  will  be  able  to  construct  about  J^  mile  of 
ditch  per  10-hr,  day,  under  average  working  conditions. 

The  standard  size  of  four-wheel  graders  will  average  about 
1000  cu.  yd.  or  18,000  sq.  yds.  of  road  surface,  in  road  construc- 
tion or  maintenance  per  10-hr,  day.  The  cost  of  road  con- 
struction will  vary  from  1J£  cents  to  2J^  cents  per  cu.  yd., 
depending  on  soil,  width  of  road,  size  of  scraper  depth  of  cut, 
etc.  The  services  of  five  horses  and  two  men,  at  an  operating 
cost  of  about  $12.00  per  day,  will  be  required. 

27.  Resume. — The  road  grader  can  be  efficiently  used  in  the 
construction  and  maintenance  of  roads  and  small  ditches.     The 
limitations  of  this  machine  depend  to  a  great  extent  upon  its 
size  and  construction.     The  two-wheel  grader  is  adapted  to  the 
grading  up  of  roads,  the  leveling  of  the  surface,  and  the  excava- 
tion of  small  ditches  where  the  soil  is  dry  and  not  too  hard. 


BLADE    OR    ROAD    GRADERS  25 

The  four-wheel  grader  is  especially  serviceable  in  the  grading 
up  of  roads  and  the  excavation  of  the  upper  sections  of  large 
ditches.  The  Reclamation  grader  is  useful  in  side-hill  work  and 
the  construction  of  the  small  ditches  in  dry,  loose  soils.  A  grader 
of  any  type  cannot  operate  successfully  in  very  loose  and  wet 
soils  nor  in  very  dense,  hard  soils. 

Where  a  large  amount  of  road  construction  is  included  in  one 
contract  it  is  advisable  to  use  a  traction  engine  for  motive  power. 
A  saving  of  from  J^  to  1  cent  per  cu.  yd.  of  material  moved  may 
often  be  affected  by  the  substitution  of  a  traction  engine  for  horses. 

The  leveling  of  the  surface  preparatory  to  irrigation  or  further 
excavation  can  be  efficiently  accomplished  by  the  use  of  the 
Shuart  grader.  This  machine  consists  of  a  scraping  steel  blade 
attached  to  a  frame  carried  on  four  low  wheels.  At  each  side  of 
the  frame  is  a  guard  which  enables  the  blade  to  push  along  ahead 
of  itself  a  large  amount  of  the  excavated  material.  The  blade* 
can  be  raised  and  lowered  by  means  of  levers. 

28.  Bibliography.— See  Art.  33,  page  29. 


CHAPTER  IV 
ELEVATING  GRADERS 

29.  General  Description. — The  elevating  grader  consists  of 
a  frame  supported  on  two  two-wheel  trucks.  From  the  frame  is 
suspended  a  plow  and  a  transverse  inclined  frame,  which  carries  a 
wide  traveling  endless  belt.  The  moving  belt  frame  or  elevator 
is  so  constructed  and  supported,  that  the  extension  of  the  belt 
beyond  the  center  of  the  machine  may  be  varied  and  the  inclina- 
tion of  the  belt  changed.  The  form  of  plow  used  may  be  either  of 
the  disc  or  the  ordinary  mold-board  type.  The  plow  is  suspended 


Fia.  17. — Plow    side    of    elevating    grader.     (Courtesy    of    Western    Wheeled 

Scraper  Co.) 

from  an  independent  beam,  which  is  so  hung  from  the  main  frame 
that  the  plow  may  be  adjusted  in  four  ways;  longitudinal,  trans- 
verse, vertical,  and  tilting.  The  plow  loosens  the  soil  and  raises 
it  upon  the  lower  end  of  the  inclined  belt,  which  carries  to  the 
outer  and  upper  end  of  the  elevator,  where  it  falls  on  to  the 
spoil  bank  or  into  wagons.  An  elevating  grader  with  a  mold- 
board  plow  is  shown  in  Fig.  17  and  one  equipped  with  a  disc 
plow  in  Fig.  18.  The  elevator  side  of  a  grader  is  shown  in 
Fig.  19. 

26 


ELEVATING  GRADERS 


27 


The  elevating  grader  is  generally  made  in  three  sizes;  each 
of  which  is  especially  adapted  for  a  special  field  of  work.     The 


FIG.  18. — Plow    side    of    elevating    grader.     (Courtesy    of    Western      Wheeled 

Scraper  Co.) 


FIG.  19. — Elevator   side  of  elevating   grader.     (Courtesy   of   Western    Wheeled 

Scraper  Co.) 

following  table  gives  a  statement  of  the  size,  weight  and  cost  of 
the  various  sizes  of  a  well-known  make: 


Size 

Conveying 
radius,  ft. 

Weight,  Ib. 

Cost,  f.o.b. 
factory 

Small 

10  to  18 

8600 

$1000  00 

Standard  

14  to  24 

9,400 

$1050  00 

Large 

12  to  30 

12000 

$1700  00 

28       EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

30.  Field  of  Use. — The  small  size  or  Junior  grader  is  especially 
adapted  for  loading  wagons,  working  in  narrow  cuts  or  for  other 
use  where  a  narrow  machine  and  short  elevator  are  required. 
For  narrow  ditch  excavation,  elevators  as  short  as  10  ft.  and  made 
in  one  piece,  can  be  utilized. 

The  standard  or  ordinary  size  of  grader  equipped  with  an 
elevator  from  15  to  24  ft.  long  is  of  general  use  for  loading  wagons, 
road  and  street  excavation,  the  construction  of  earth  embank- 
ments and  levees,  etc. 

The  large  size  or  Giant  grader  is  especially  adapted  for  use  in 
the  construction  of  heavy  materials  and  equipped  with  an  ele- 
vator which  will  dump  material  from  12  to  30  ft.  from  the  machine. 
This  grader  is  adapted  to  work  of  great  magnitude,  the  excavation 
of  stiff  heavy  soils,  and  severe  working  conditions.  It  will  ex- 
cavate a  ditch  having  a  top  width  of  about  50  ft.  and  an  average 
depth  of  about  6  feet. 

The  traction  engine  is  the  most  economical  form  of  motive 
power,  especially  for  the  larger  sizes  of  grader  and  in  the  ex- 
cavation of  dense,  hard  soils.  The  elevating  belt  is,  in  the  larger 
machines,  sometimes  propelled  by  a  5-  to  7-  h.p.  gasoline  engine, 
mounted  on  the  rear  of  the  frame. 

31.  Cost  of  Operation. — The  standard  size  of  elevating  grader 
will  excavate  from  800  to  1000  cu.  yd.  of  ordinary  soil,  during  a 
10-hr,  working  day.     From  12  to  16  horses,  or  a  20-h.p.  traction 
engine,  two  drivers  and  an  operator,  will  be  required  for  its  efficient 
operation.     For  a  haul  of  about  300  ft.,  five  1  J^-yd.  dump  wagons 
will  be  needed  to  keep  one  grader  busy.     The  cost  of  operation 
will  vary  from  8  to  15  cents  per  cubic  yard,  depending  on  soil  and 
labor  conditions,  the  kind  of  motive  power  used,  the  method  of 
disposal  of  the  excavated  material,  etc. 

32.  Resume. — The  elevating  grader  is  an  efficient  machine 
for  a  wide  range  of  shallow  excavation  where  fthe  soil  conditions 
are  favorable.     Very  loose  and  light  soils  of  a  sandy  or  silty 
nature  cannot  be  raised  by  the  plow,  and  wet,  sticky  soils,  such 
as  gumbo,  work  with  great  difficulty.     The  presence  of  roots, 
stumps,  boulders  and  other  obstructions  in  the  soil  make  the 
operation  of  the  grader  difficult  and  unsatisfactory. 

The  elevating  grader  has  been  universally  used  on  road  con- 
struction in  this  country  during  the  last  30  years.  It  is  a  more 
economical  machine  than  the  blade  grader,  since  the  excavated 
material  can  be  moved  up  to  a  distance  of  30  ft.  by  the  former 


RLE  VA  TING  GRA  DERS  29 

/ 

machine  while  several  trips  would  be  required  of  the  latter.  The 
blade  grader  should  follow  the  elevating  grader  to  smooth  up  and 
finish  the  surface. 

In  recent  years,  the  elevating  grader  has  been  used  successfully 
in  the  West  in  the  excavation  of  large  ditches  and  canals,  where 
the  bottom  width  exceeds  10  feet. 

On  railroad  construction,  the  use  of  the  grader  is  not  practicable 
unless  the  width  of  cut  is  more  than  35  ft.;  the  space  necessary 
for  the  wagons  to  pass  the  machine  for  direct  loading  without 
rehandling  of  the  excavated  material. 

The  grader  has  recently  been  adapted  to  the  construction 
of  earthen  dams,  embankments,  levees,  fire  protection  walls, 
etc.  In  this  class  of  work,  the  machine  borrows  the  material 
which  is  generally  transported  in  dump  wagons  to  the  site  of  the 
embankment. 

The  use  of  the  gasoline  engine  to  operate  the  belt  conveyor 
has  not  been  found  economical  except  for  the  largest  size  of 
machine.  The  traction  engine  should  always  be  used  for  motive 
power  where  soil  conditions  are  favorable.  It  has  been  found  in 
the  use  of  the  grader  in  irrigation  work  in  isolated  dry  and  hot 
sections  of  the  west  that  horses  and  mules  are  difficult  to  secure 
and  keep.  Light  and  loose  sandy  soils  will  not  stand  up  under  the 
heavy  weight  of  a  traction  engine,  while  some  dense  clayey  soils 
pack  so  hard  under  the  engine  wheels  as  to  render  their  excavation 
difficult. 

33.  Bibliography. — For  additional  information,  consult  the 
following  references: 

Books 

1.  "American    Civil    Engineers  Pocket  Book,"  edited  by   MANSFIELD 
MERRIMAN,   3d  edition,  published  in  1916  by  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  New 
York.     1496  pages,  1047  figures,  4>£  in.  X  7  in.     Cost,  $5.00. 

2.  "The  Chicago  Main  Drainage  Channel,"  by  C.  S.  HILL,  published  in 
1896  by  Engineering  News  Publishing  Company,  New  York.     129  pages, 
105  figures,  8  in.  X  11  in. 

3.  "Construction  of  Roads  and  Pavements,"  by  T.  R.  AGG,  published  in 
1916  by  McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  New  York.     432  pages,  116  figures, 
6  in.  X  9  in.     Cost,  $3.00. 

4.  "Earth  and  Rock  Excavation,"  by  CHARLES  PRELINI,  published  in 
1905  by  D.  Van  Nostrand,  New  York.     421  pages,  167  figures,  6  in.  X  9  in., 
Cost,  $3.00. 

5.  "Earthwork  and  Its  Cost, "  by  H.  P.  GILLETTE,  published  in  1918  by 
McGraw-Hill   Book  Company,   New   York.     238   pages,  60  figures,  5  in. 
8  in.     Cost,  $2.00. 


30       EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

6.  "Elements  of  Highway  Engineering,"  by  A.  H.  BLANCH ARD,  published 
in  1915  by  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  New  York.     497  pages,  202  figures,  6  in.  X 
9  in.     Cost,  $3.00. 

7.  "  Handbook  of  Cost  Data,"  by  H.  P.  GILLETTE,  published  by  McGraw- 
Hill   Book   Company,    New   York.     1854  pages,   4%   in.  X  7  in.     Cost, 
$5.00. 

8.  "Handbook  of  Construction  Plant,"  by  R.  T.  DANA,  published  by 
McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  New  York.     702  pages,  4%  in.    X  7  in., 
312  figures.     Cost,  $5.00. 

9.  "Roads  and  Pavements,"  by  IRA  O.  BAKER,  published  in  1914  by 
John  Wiley  &  Sons,  New  York.     698  pages,   171  figures,  6  in.  X  9  in. 
Cost,  $4.50. 

10.  "Text-Book  in   Highway   Engineering,"  by   BLANCHARD-DROWNE, 
published  in  1911  by  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  New  York.     761  pages,  234  figures, 
6  in.  X  9  in.     Cost,  $4.50. 

Magazine  Articles 

1.  Design  and  Construction  of  Earth  Roads  in  Iowa.     Engineering  News, 
April  16,  1914.     Illustrated,  2700  words. 

2.  Earth  Handled  Cheaply  in  Grading  Utah  Roads.     Engineering  News, 
July  6,  1916.     Illustrated,  1000  words. 

3.  Gasoline    Tractors   for   Southern    Road    Work.     Engineering   News, 
August  27,  1914.     Illustrated,  1300  words. 

4.  Moving  Earth  with  Elevating  Graders  and  Dump  Wagons.     Engineer- 
ing Record,  December  30,  1909.     1500  words. 

5.  Operation  Analysis  of  New  Machines  Which  Cheapen  the  Moving  of 
Earth  on  Road  Work.     Engineering  Record,  July  31,  1915.     Illustrated, 
3000  words. 

6.  Steam  Excavating  and  Grading  Machine.     Engineering  News,  August 
15,  1901.     Illustrated,  1100  words. 


CHAPTER  V 
CAPSTAN  PLOWS 

34.  General  Description. — About  40  years  ago,  a  ditching 
plow  was  devised  in  western  Indiana  for  the  excavation  of  small 
drainage  ditches.  This  form  of  excavator  known  as  the  capstan 
plow  consists  of  a  large  double  mold-board  plow,  which  is  hung 
from  a  framework  mounted  on  two  trucks  for  transportation 
from  place  to  place.  See  Fig.  20. 


FIG.  20. — Capstan  plow. 

The  complete  plow  outfit  consists  of  the  plow  and  the  means 
of  propulsion ;  two  capstans  or  a  specially  devised  traction  engine. 
A  ditching  company  operating  one  of  these  outfits,  usually  travels 
from  place  to  place  and  lives  in  two  cabins  mounted  on  wheels; 
one  cabin  for  a  dining  room  and  the  other  for  sleeping  quarters. 
Six  to  eight  men  and  from  10  to  20  horses  are  used  to  operate  an 
outfit, 

31 


32       EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

35.  Method  of  Operation. — Originally,  the  plow  was  pulled 
through  the  soil  by  from  30  to  40  team  of  oxen,  making  the  ditch 
at  one  cut.  As  oxen  went  out  of  use  as  draft  animals,  wooden 
capstans  were  utilized  to  operate  the  plow  by  manilla  rope 
cables.  Later  the  capstans  were  improved  by  constructing  them 
of  steel  and  wood,  and  wire  cables  replaced  the  rope  cables. 

The  capstans  are  set  ahead  of  the  plow,  one  on  either  side  of  the 
ditch  line  and  attached  to  the  beam  of  the  plow  by  steel  cables. 
A  long  horizontal  pole  projects  from  the  capstan,  and  to  the 


FIG.  21. — Capstan  and  plow  outfit. 

outer  end  of  this  sweep  is  attached  several  teams  of  horses.  See 
Fig.  21.  The  latter  are  driven  in  a  circular  path  around  the 
capstan  the  drum  of  which  revolves  and  winds  up  the  rope  or 
cable,  drawing  the  plow  through  the  soil.  By  operating  either 
one  or  both  capstans  together,  the  plow  may  be  moved  to  one 
side  or  straight  ahead. 

Recently  in  Minnesota,  a  gasoline  tractor  has  been  devised 
and  successfully  utilized  as  the  source  of  motive  power.  This 
machine  is  supported  on  two  long  caterpillar  tractors,  30  in. 


CAPSTAN  PLOWS 


33 


34       EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

wide  and  carries  a  cable  drum,  16  in.  in  diameter  and  24  in.  long. 
The  drum  is  driven  from  the  main  driving  shaft  of  the  60-h.p. 
engine  and  is  geared  so  that  the  cable  is  wound  in  at  a  rate  of 
from  14  to  18  ft.  per  minute,  depending  upon  the  amount  of  cable 
on  the  drum.  Ordinarily  about  1000  ft.  of  wire  cable  is  used. 
The  caterpillar  tractor  is  shown  in  Fig.  22.  The  method  of 
operation  is  as  follows.  The  plow,  removed  from  its  four-wheel 
carriage  is  left  at  the  beginning  of  the  ditch,  the  cable  attached 
to  its  beam.  The  tractor  moves  down  along  the  ditch  line, 
paying  out  the  cable  as  it  advances.  When  the  proper  point  is 
reached  the  traction  gear  is  thrown  out  and  the  drum  gear  thrown 
into  mesh.  The  strain  of  the  cable  is  counteracted  by  two  anchor 
flukes,  one  on  each  side  of  the  front  end  of  the  machine. 
When  the  plow  reaches  the  end  of  the  cut,  the  drum  gear  is 
released,  the  traction  gear  is  thrown  in  and  the  machine  moves 
ahead  to  a  new  position. 

The  tractor  is  operated  by  one  man  and  a  helper;  one  man  rides 
the  plow.  A  team  and  driver  are  used  for  hauling  fuel  and  sup- 
plies, while  a  foreman  directs  the  operations  of  the  outfit. 

36.  Cost    of    Operation. — The    standard    horse-driven    plow 
cuts  a  ditch  about  8  ft.  wide  on  top,  18  in.  wide  on  the  bottom 
and  about  3  ft.  in  depth.     About  6  men  and  20  horses  are 
required  to  operate  the  outfit.     From  50  to  100  rods  of  ditch  at 
a  contract  price  of  from  $1.00  to  $2.00  per  rod  are  cut  during  a 
10-hr,  day,  depending  or  soil  conditions. 

The  power  ditching  outfits,  operated  by  the  gasoline  tractors 
use  steel  plows  which  cut  a  ditch  section  having  a  2  ft.  bottom 
width  and  an  average  depth  of  3J^  feet. 

37.  Resume. — The  capstan  plow  has  been  generally  used  in  the 
Middle   West  in  the  construction  of  small   drainage  ditches. 
The  recent  adaptation  of  the  caterpillar  tractor  as  a  source  of 
motive  power,  will  extend  its  use  to  the  drainage  of  swamp  and 
marsh  lands,  which  have  previously  been  inaccessible  for  teams. 

The  capstan  plow,  in  soils  free  from  obstructions  and  not 
too  dense,  works  easily  and  rapidly  and  constructs  a  ditch  of 
uniform  cross-section.  Where  the  surface  of  the  ground  has  a 
uniform  slope,  this  machine  will  make  an  efficient  ditch,  but  for 
undulating  or  uneven  land  it  is  useless,  unless  the  surface  has 
been  previously  graded  off. 

As  a  general  thing  capstan  plow  ditches  are  too  small  and 
where  the  slope  is  light,  they  soon  fill  up  and  become  useless. 


CAPSTAN  PLOWS  35 

The  author  has  seen  many  such  ditches  which  after  several  years 
service,  were  nearly  filled  up  with  debris,  silt,  weeds,  Russian 
thistle,  tumble  weed,  etc. 

The  capstan  plow  can  only  be  used  efficiently  and  satisfactorily 
for  the  excavation  of  small  lateral  ditches  for  irrigation  and 
drainage  systems,  where  the  slope  of  the  ground  surface  is  uniform 
and  sufficiently  large  to  give  a  flushing  velocity  with  the  ditch 
running  half  full. 

38.  Bibliography. — The  following  articles  are  given  for  refer- 
ence: 

Magazine  Articles 

1.  Ditching  with  Capstan  Plows.     Engineering  News,  February  3,  1916. 
Illustrated,  1200  words. 

2.  Gasoline  Tractor  Developed  in  Power  Ditching.     Engineering  Record, 
July  29,  1916.     Illustrated,  900  words. 


CHAPTER  VI 
POWER  SHOVELS 

39.  General  Description. — Power  shovels  may  be  classified 
as  to  the  kind  of  power  used  for  their  operation.  Until  recently 
all  shovels  were  operated  by  steam  power,  but  with  the  universal 
adaptation  of  electricity  to  the  operation  of  machinery,  the  elec- 
tric motor  has  in  some  cases  replaced  the  steam  engine  as  a  prime 
mover  for  their  operation.  The  steam  shovel  is  still  the  most 
generally  used  type  for  economic  reasons. 

Power  shovels  may  also  be  classified  as  to  their  construction 
and  method  of  operation: 

First,  those  where  the  machinery  is  mounted  on  a  fixed  plat- 
form, and  the  sphere  of  operation  is  limited  to  an  arc  of  about 
200  degrees  about  the  head  of  the  machine. 

Second,  those  where  the  machinery  is  mounted  on  a  revolving 
platform,  and  the  sphere  of  operation  is  within  a  circle  the  center 
of  which  is  the  middle  of  the  machine. 

The  first  class  may  be  divided  into  three  types,  depending  on 
the  manner  of  supporting  the  platform. 

(a)  Machines  mounted  on  trucks  of  standard  gage,  used  largely 
in  railroad  construction. 

(6)  Machines  mounted  on  trucks  with  wheels  other  than  stand- 
ard gage  and  used  in  various  classes  of  excavation. 

(c)  Machines  mounted  on  trucks  with  small  broad-tired  wheels 
and  used  in  railroad,  highway,  basement  and  other  kinds  of 
construction. 

The  second  class  is  made  only  in  the  smaller  sizes  and  the  truck 
is  mounted  on  small,  wide,  flat-tired  wheels  for  transit  over  or- 
dinary roads.  These  light  revolving  shovels  are  especially 
adapted  for  the  excavation  of  small,  scattered  railroad  cuts, 
street  grading,  trench  and  ditch  construction. 

The  machines  of  type  (a)  are  generally  preferred  for  rail- 
road construction.  A  wooden  or  steel  car-body  is  supported  on 
two  four-wheel  trucks  of  standard  gage.  The  crane,  which  is 
generally  made  of  structural  steel,  is  so  arranged  that  it  can  be 
lowered  to  pass  overhead  bridges  and  through  tunnels. 

36 


POWER  SHOVELS  37 

The  shovels  of  type  (6)  were  first  built  and  are  still  used  on 
general  construction  work.  They  are  mounted  on  a  wide  wooden 
steel  frame  or  car-body,  which  is  supported  on  four  small  wheels 
of  7  to  8  ft.  gage.  Great  stability  is  thus  given  to  the  machine 
by  placing  it  near  the  ground  with  a  wide  base.  For  transporta- 
tion, when  near  a  railroad,  the  machine  is  placed  on  a  flat  car  and 
the  boom  is  removed  and  placed  on  a  separate  car.  Away  from  a 
railroad  line,  the  machine  can  be  readily  dismantled  and  shipped 
in  sections  by  wagons,  trucks  or  boat.  This  type  of  shovel,  on 
account  of  its  portableness  and  quick  adaptability  to  all  kinds 
of  work  in  any  locality,  makes  it  desirable  for  general  use. 

The  three  types  differ  principally  in  their  method  of  support, 
but  otherwise  are  similar  in  their  details  of  construction  and 
operation. 


Fio.  23. — Bucyrus  seventy  C  steam  shovel.     (Courtesy  of  Bucyrus  Co.) 
FIRST   CLASS— FIXED   PLATFORM    SHOVELS 

40.  Construction. — The  general  arrangement  is  the  same  in 
all  makes  of  steam  shovel.  On  the  platform  of  the  car-body  is 
placed  the  operating  machinery  and  power  equipment,  the  boiler 
at  the  rear  end,  the  engines  near  the  center  and  the  A-frame  and 
boom  at  the  front  end  of  the  car.  Figure  23  shows  a  Seventy  C 
Bucyrus  Steam  Shovel. 

CAR-BODY 

The  trucks,  whether  of  standard  railroad  type  or  special 
construction,  are  generally  placed  near  the  ends  of  the  car,  nearly 
under  the  boiler  on  the  rear  end  and  under  the  A-frame  on  the 


38       EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

front  end.  For  type  (a)  of  this  class,  the  trucks  are  generally 
the  extra  heavy  M.  C.  B.  standard  with  all  steel  diamond  frames. 
The  inside  axles  of  both  trucks  are  chain  connected  to  sprocket 
wheels  operated  by  the  engine,  thus  furnishing  the  propelling 
power  for  moving  the  shovel  in  either  direction  along  the  track. 

The  frame,  supported  by  and  pivoted  to  the  trucks,  is  made  up 
of  steel  I-beams  and  channels  well  braced  longitudinally  and 
transversely  and  strongly  riveted  and  bolted  together.  The  frame 
is  sometimes  floored  with  heavy  planking,  usually  3  in.  oak  or 
yellow  pine,  upon  which  rests  the  power  equipment.  The  size 
of  the  car-body  varies  with  the  capacity  of  the  shovel,  an  average 
size  such  as  a  75-ton  shovel,  has  a  length  of  40  ft.  and  a  width  of 
10  feet.  The  ends  of  the  frame  are  generally  equipped  with  auto- 
matic couplers  of  an  approved  type,  so  that  the  machine  may  be 
coupled  into  a  train. 

As  the  car-body  is  subjected  to  severe  and  rapidly  repeated 
strains,  it  is  necessary  that  it  shall  be  very  rigidly  constructed 
at  the  front  end,  under  the  A-frame  supports,  and  the  turntable. 
Some  manufacturers  use  oak  timbers  between  the  steel  members, 
claiming  that  the  wood  acts  as  a  cushion  to  resist  the  continual 
twisting  and  wrenching  strains.  Doubtless  the  wood  does  add  a 
certain  amount  ot  elasticity  to  the  frame  and  tends  to  reduce  the 
tendency  to  shear  off  bolts  and  rivets  and  to  crystallize  the  steel. 
The  wood  should  be  of  the  most  durable  variety,  such  as  white 
oak. 

The  car-body  supports  a  framework  of  timber  or  steel  upon 
which  is  applied  a  sheathing  of  wood  or  corrugated  steel  to  form 
the  sides  and  roof  of  a  car.  This  is  necessary  to  protect  the  ma- 
chinery from  climatic  conditions.  In  the  later  types  of  shovels, 
sliding  doors  are  provided,  so  that  light  and  ventilation  may  be 
had  in  pleasant  weather. 

BOILER 

The  boiler  may  be  either  of  the  vertical  type  with  submerged 
flues  or  of  the  horizontal  locomotive  type.  The  former  is  more 
economical  of  floor  space,  but  the  latter  is  more  economical  in 
the  use  of  fuel,  and  for  this  reason  is  generally  used  in  the  larger 
machines.  The  boiler  should  be  of  ample  capacity,  as  it  is  often 
worked  to  the  limit  with  the  throttle  wide  open.  Steam  pressure 
is  generally  maintained  at  about  100  Ib.  with  a  blow-off  at  from 
125  to  150  pounds. 


POWER  SHOVELS  39 

Water  should  always  be  supplied  to  the  boiler  through  an  in- 
jector or  by  means  of  a  feed-pump.  Water  is  stored  in  a  sheet- 
iron  tank  located  in  a  rear  corner  of  the  platform.  The  tank 
usually  has  a  capacity  of  about  1000  gal.  or  enough  for  one-half 
day's  operation  of  the  machine.  At  the  rear  end  of  the  platform 
is  placed  a  bin,  tank  or  open  box  to  hold  the  fuel  for  the  boiler 
or  engine.  Coal  and  wood  are  generally  used  for  steam 
boilers,  while  gasoline  or  kerosene  is  used  when  a  gas  engine 
supplies  the  power.  The  water  may  be  supplied  to  the  storage 
tank  by  siphoning  or  pumping  it  out  of  the  tender  of  a  locomotive, 
a  tank  car,  or  a  tank  wagon. 

ENGINES 

The  engines  are  either  of  the  vertical  type  with  a  single  steam 
cylinder  or  of  the  horizontal  type  with  double  steam  cylinders. 
The  engines  control  the  three  principa  operations  of  the  shovel ; 
hoisting,  swinging,  and  thrusting.  In  some  of  the  older  types  of 
shovels,  all  three  operations  are  controlled  by  one  engine.  This 
type  has  three  drums  mounted  on  one  shaft,  the  hoisting  drum  in 
the  center  and  the  swinging  drums  on  each  side.  The  latter  are  re- 
versed and  operated  by  the  same  lever.  The  drums  are  actuated 
and  controlled  either  by  positive  gearing  or  friction  clutches. 
The  former  is  slow  in  operation  and  subjects  the  machinery  to 
great  jarring  and  severe  shocks  in  digging  hard  material.  The 
latter  is  quick  and  smooth  in  operation,  and  gives  a  minimum  of 
shocks  in  hard  material,  but  is  liable  to  bind  through  overheating 
of  the  friction  surfaces.  To  alleviate  this  source  of  trouble,  the 
diameter  of  the  friction  drums  should  be  at  least  twice  that  of 
the  cable  drums.  The  positive  gearing  generally  has  a  longer 
life  and  requires  fewer  repairs  than  the  friction  clutch,  but  the 
latter  is  the  more  popular  at  the  present  time  on  account  of  its 
rapidity  and  smoothness  of  action.  The  single  shaft  with  its 
three  drums,  rotates  continuously  in  one  direction  under  the  ac- 
tion of  a  large  steel  gear  driven  by  a  steel  pinion  on  the  engine 
shaft.  The  hoisting  chain  passes  over  a  sprocket,  at  the  top 
of  the  mast  or  the  foot  of  the  boom,  and  this  revolves  an  axle 
to  which  another  sprocket  wheel  is  fastened.  The  latter  operates 
an  endless  chain  which  revolves  a  drum  placed  on  the  upper  side 
of  the  boom  near  the  dipper  handle.  This  drum  is  controlled 
by  a  friction  clutch  and  operated  by  the  cranesman.  In  the  older 
types  of  machine  a  chain  is  attached  to  the  end  of  the  dipper 


40       EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

handle,  and  wound  around  the  drum.  The  rotation  of  the  drum 
raises  and  lowers  the  dipper  handle.  In  later  types,  a  rack  on  the 
bottom  of  the  dipper  handle  moves  a  pinion  on  a  shaft  which  is 
operated  as  described  above. 

The  recent  types  of  steam  shovel  use  a  small  independent 
engine  to  thrust  the  dipper  into  the  bank,  placed  on  the  upper 
side  of  the  boom,  and  is  of  the  double-cylinder,  horizontal  type. 
It  operates  a  set  of  gears,  which  revolve  a  shaft  on  which  is  set 
a  steel  pinion  feeding  into  a  steel-toothed  rack  on  the  bottom 
side  of  the  dipper  handle.  The  engine  may  be  either  reversible 
or  controlled  by  a  friction  clutch.  With  the  use  of  the  former 
type,  the  dipper  handle  is  always  actuated  and  controlled  by  the 
engine,  while  with  the  latter  type,  the  release  of  the  friction  al- 
lows the  dipper  and  handle  to  lower  by  gravity. 

Instead  of  having  the  swinging  of  the  boom  actuated  from  the 
main  engine,  some  makes  of  steam  shovel  use  an  independent 
swinging  engine.  This  is  usually  a  double-cylinder,  horizontal, 
reversible  engine,  of  less  power  than  the  main  or  hoisting  engine. 
A  chain  or  cable  passes  around  the  swinging  circle  and  is  wound 
around  the  drum  of  the  engine,  starting  from  the  two  ends  of  the 
drum  in  opposite  directions. 

The  size  of  the  engines  vary  with  the  type  used  and  the  capacity 
of  the  shovel.  They  should  be  made  of  ample  power  for  use  in  the 
hardest  and  toughest  material.  The  power  of  an  engine  depends 
on  the  size  of  its  cylinders,  varying  from  6  by  8  in.  to  13  by  1 6 
inches.  These  engines  are  subjected  to  almost  continuous  shocks 
and  vibratory  strains  and  should  be  made  of  the  very  best  and 
strongest  materials.  The  more  important  parts  such  as  the  shafts 
and  gears  should  be  of  the  best  tool  and  cast  steel,  respectively. 

BOOM 

The  boom  is  a  simple  beam  made  in  two  sections,  separated  far 
enough  to  allow  for  the  free  passage  of  the  dipper  handle.  It  may 
be  constructed  of  wood  reinforced  with  steel  plates  or  entirely 
of  steel.  It  is  made  narrow  at  the  ends  and  wide  near  the  center 
where  the  dipper  handle  rests.  The  greatest  strain  is  at  this 
point.  It  is  made  of  such  length  as  to  reach  14  to  20  ft.  above 
the  track  or  ground  surface,  and  to  swing  with  a  radius  of  from 
15  to  20  ft.,  through  an  angle  of  from  180  to  240  degrees.  The 
lower  end  of  the  boom  rests  on  the  swinging  circle  which  is  pivoted 
to  the  front  end  of  the  platform.  The  boom  revolves  with  the 


POWER  SHOVELS  41 

/ 

swinging  circle.     Its  upper  and  outer  end  is  connected  to  the  top 
of  the  A-frame  with  steel  rods  or  bars. 

The  hoisting  chain  or  cable  passes  from  the  hoisting  drum  to 
the  fair  lead  or  sheaves  just  below  the  turntable,  then  up  over  the 
sheave  near  the  foot  of  the  boom  and  thence  along  the  boom  to 
the  sheave  at  the  outer  end  of  the  boom,  and  thence  to  the  shovel 
at  the  outer  end  of  its  handle.  The  revolution  of  the  hoisting 
drum  lets  out  or  draws  in  the  chain  or  cable  and  thus  lowers  or 
raises  the  shovel. 

A-FRAME 

This  is  a  frame  made  up  of  heavy  steel  bars  with  timber  rein- 
forcement or  entirely  of  structural  steel  posts.  The  feet  of  the 
posts  are  supported  on  each  side  of  the  platform  just  back  of  the 
turntable.  The  top  of  the  frame  carries  a  pivoted  cast-steel  head 
block  to  which  is  fastened  the  rods  or  bars  from  the  outer  end 
of  the  boom.  The  A-frame  is  given  a  slight  inclination  toward 
the  boom  and  is  made  several  feet  shorter.  The  height  of  the 
boom  when  it  is  lowered,  must  be  less  than  the  overhead  clearance, 
where  a  shovel  has  to  pass  through  tunnels  or  under  bridges, 
or  in  railroad  and  street  work. 

DIPPER  HANDLE 

The  handle  to  the  lower  end  of  which  is  attached  the  dipper  or 
shovel,  is  generally  made  of  a  single  timber  of  white  oak.  Upon 
its  lower  side  is  fastened  the  toothed  rack  which  moves  over  the 
pinion  on  the  upper  side  of  the  boom.  The  operation  of  this 
pinion  was  described  in  the  section  entitled  "Engines."  The 
upper  edges  of  the  handle  are  reinforced  with  steel  angles  or  bent 
plates. 

DIPPER 

The  shovel  or  dipper  is  made  in  the  form  of  a  scoop  with  closed 
side,  open  top  and  a  hinged  door  for  the  rear  or  bottom.  It  is 
made  of  heavy  steel  plates  strongly  reinforced  at  top  and  bottom 
with  steel  .bars.  The  top  or  front  edge  of  the  dipper  is  provided 
with  a  cutting  edge  of  flange  steel  for  soft  material,  or  of  heavy 
forged  steel  teeth  for  hard  material.  These  teeth  can  be  readily 
unbolted  for  sharpening  or  repairs.  The  bottom  of  the  bucket 
is  of  heavy  steel  hinged  to  the  rear  side  of  the  dipper,  and  closed 


42       EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

by  a  spring-latch  on  the  front  side.  A  small  line  leads  from  the 
door  to  the  side  of  the  boom  where  the  cranesman  stands.  When 
the  filled  dipper  is  over  the  car  or  wagon,  a  jerk  on  the  line  by 
the  cranesman  opens  the  latch  and  causes  the  bottom  to  drop, 
releasing  the  contained  material. 


CAPACITY 

HEIGHT 

DIAMETER 

WEIGHT 

Cu.  Yd. 

Cu.Ft. 

Closed 

Open 

Closed 

Open 

H 

13H 

5-10' 

6'-  6* 

4'-6" 

5-7' 

1750  Ibs. 

% 

20J4 

7-  4" 

7-10- 

5-6' 

7-0" 

3450  Ibs. 

1 

27 

8-  0- 

8-10H" 

G'-O" 

7'-l" 

4250  Ibs. 

Ifc 

33% 

8'-3M" 

9-  2K' 

6'-3' 

7-3- 

4775  Ibs. 

IH 

40K 

9-  5" 

10'-.  OK" 

6-6' 

8'-6" 

6800  Ibs. 

2 

52 

10'-  0* 

11'-  2' 

7-0- 

8-9  " 

8400  Ibs. 

FIG.  24. — Browning  orange-peel  buckets.     (Courtesy  of  Browning  Mfg.  Co.) 


Dippers  vary  in  size  from  ^  cu.  yd.  to  6  cu.  yd.  and  require 
corresponding  machines  weighing  from  10  to  130  tons. 

The  shape  of  the  dipper  and  the  character  of  the  cutting  edge 
should  depend  on  the  character  of  the  material  to  be  excavated. 
Teeth  should  be  used  as  a  cutting  edge  for  hard  material,  while 
they  cause  considerable  trouble  in  dumping  in  removing  sticky 
clay.  For  sand,  gravel  and  the  average  clay  and  loam,  a  wide 
smooth  cutting  edge  should  be  used.  A  large,  wide  dipper  should 


POWER  SHOVELS 


43 


be  used  when  the  material  is  filled  with  large  stone  or  boulders. 
For  soft,  loose  material  such  as  sand,  loose  gravel  and  dry  earth, 
the  shovel  should  be  deep  with  a  cross-section  nearly  square.  A 
wide,  shallow-mouthed  dipper  is  the  best  shape  for  the  excavation 
of  cemented  gravel,  hard  dry  materials  or  wet  clay.  The  bottom 


Capacity 

Height 

length 

3 

£ 

Weight 

Weight 

Cu. 

Yd. 

Cu. 

Ft. 

u 

I 

0 

1 

No  Shoes 

With  Shoes 

>i 
« 

13H 

5'-S- 

6-9' 

6'-4)' 

G'-O' 

2'-5- 

2100  Ibs. 

2300  Ibs. 

20H 

8-1" 

7'-2' 

5'-4' 

6-7- 

8-1' 

2500  Ibs. 

2750  Ibs. 

1 

IH 

27 

6-5' 

7'-7H" 

5'-8- 

7-2' 

3-1- 

2600  Ibs. 

2850  Ibs. 

40K 

7-2- 

8'-$5f 

0'-4' 

8-0' 

3-7  ' 

4500  Ibs. 

4000  Ibs. 

2 
3 

54 
81 

7'-8- 

8--11H' 

6'-8' 

8'-7' 

4-1  ' 

4800  Ibs. 

6875  Ibs. 

7'-9- 

8'-7' 

6'-8' 

9'-8' 

5-1  ' 

8450  Ibs. 

Fio.  25.-7-Browning  clam-shell  buckets.     (Courtesy  of  Browning  Mfg.  Co.) 


of  the  dipper  should  be  slightly  larger  than  the  top,  to  facilitate 
the  dumping  of  sticky  material.  A  great  deal  of  time  is  often 
lost  in  cleaning  the  dipper  when  it  is  excavating  sticky  soils  such 
as  gumbo.  A  sprinkling  hose  is  very  useful  for  removing  this 
sort  of  material  from  the  sides  of  the  dipper,  and  to  prevent  its 
adhering. 


44       EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

The  dipper  is  fastened  to  the  handle  by  means  of  heavy  forged 
arms  and  braces.  A  hinged  bail  connects  the  top  of  the  dipper 
with  the  hoisting  line.  In  some  makes  of  shovel  this  line  is 
fastened  directly  to  the  top  of  the  bail  and  is  carried  up  and 
fastened  to  the  boom  near  its  outer  end. 


TYPES  OF  BUCKETS 

Several  kinds  of  dippers  or  buckets  are  used  with  the  steam 
shovel.  The  dipper  described  previously  is  the  type  generally 
used  in  ordinary  excavation  work.  The  ordinary  type  of  dipper 
is  shown  in  Fig.  26.  When  loose  sand  and  gravel  are  to  be 
excavated,  the  clam-shell  or  orange-peel  buckets  are  efficient. 
Figure  25  gives  the  details  and  dimensions  of  a  standard  make 
of  clam-shell  bucket,  while  Fig.  24  gives  the  same  information 
for  the  orange-peel  bucket. 

JACK  BRACES 

The  swinging  of  the  boom,  dipper  and  handle  from  side  to  side 
tends  to  tip  the  front  end  of  the  car.  To  prevent  this,  jack 
braces  are  placed  on  the  sides  of  the  car-body  at  the  feet  of  the 
A-frame.  These  braces  are  of  heavy  cast  steel  and  are  attached 
to  the  platform  at  their  upper  ends  by  means  of  cast-steel  hinges 
or  sockets.  The  lower  ends  carry  screw  jacks  which  can  be  easily 
raised  and  lowered  to  get  a  bearing  on  the  ground  surface.  The 
lower  ends  of  the  braces  are  connected  to  the  under  side  of  the 
car-body  by  heavy  bars  or  rods.  These  are  also  hinged  so  that 
the  whole  brace  may  be  swung  back  against  the  car-body,  when 
not  in  use. 

In  one  well-known  type  of  shovel  the  engines  are  mounted  di- 
rectly on  the  swinging  circle  and  revolve  with  the  crane.  This 
arrangement  allows  more  room  on  the  platform  for  the  boiler  and 
affords  direct  transmission  of  power  in  hoisting.  A  sectional, 
detailed  view  of  this  type  of  shovel  is  shown  in  Fig.  26. 

Table  II  gives  the  dimensions,  weights,  and  capacities  of  a 
standard  make  of  steam  shovel. 

The  cost  of  a  steam  shovel  varies  from  $250.00  to  $400.00  per 
ton;  and  the  more  the  total  weight,  the  greater  the  weight  per 
cubic  yard  of  bucket. 


POWER  SHOVELS 


45 


46       EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


s 

1 

* 

2  Bo  Bo 
XXX 

N.           %           V 

§2 

CO 

bib 

OS  ^ 

1  x 

i 

K 

CD           t^ 

1 

b  ?-  t- 

^ 

*"* 

£ 

v 

1 

8 

1 

o 

co 

^  5     5 

-I    OS    OS 

XXX 

M    OS    OS 

CM    O 

CD 
CO 

CM 

V 

§ 

o 

•vc 

«\ 
00           O 

00           OS 

CM 

O 

8 

CD 

S 
« 

co" 

5 

CO    CO    CO 

XXX 

1- 

^s 

2 

5 

is 

i 

00 

CM           CO 

0 

CO 

QQ    r-N  i-A 

CO 

1-H     ^H 

M* 

X 

•* 

*o  *o 

WN 

c^ 

rH 

•s. 

c^ 

0 

1 

X 

^  x  x 

-    ro 

o 

Q    ^ 

1  x 

. 

t^ 

§     S 

co" 

C4 

^5  5 

CO   "< 

00 

*.        1- 

^c 

"3 

O   *-f\  >~N 

CM 

rH     ^ 

M< 

TH~ 

fH    b-    t> 

CO 

v       v       5 

V 

5 

00 

V* 

0 

I 

3 

£  X  X 

Jo 

CO 

o  ? 

§  x 

§ 

00 

co\ 

8 

S 

b*x 

CO 
CO 

» 

rts 

^'1 

s 

s 

o 

g 

CO 

"5   00   00 

XXX 

N    00    00 

o 

^H     *H 

1 

V 

1-1 

00 

li 

! 

o 

1-1 

«\ 

OS             i-l 
00           O 

0 

I 

1 

3 

055 
I-H    00   00 

XXX 

rj<    *"* 

o 

CO   <-^ 
OS  ^ 

00 

i 

CO 

0          0 

O> 

CO 

\N  00   00 

CO 

1-1  T}( 

i-H 

J;s 

"" 

CO 

0 

2 

00 

I 

XXX 

Sb 

fe 

55, 

6  °° 

i 

1 

CO              1-H 

i-l           CM 

iH 

OS 

r^v 

S.          V          V 

^m 

CO 

b  ^ 

H} 

* 

CO 

CO    O5    Oi 

^ 

CM    »H 

*. 

r~t 

1-1 

Bo 

M 

111 

1! 

f  traction 
t  truck 

f  extreme 
1  lowered 

(type 
I  dimensions 

I 

O 

I 

111 

jfi 

i 

1 

00 

| 

1 

111 

t 
S 

o, 

j 

6 

1 

a 

1 

-§  « 

"3 

a 
o 

a 

-o 

I 

1 

rer  traction 

I 

; 

nks  —  total 

1 

2 

'« 
^ 

O 

£> 

£ 

"d 

jq 

o 

o 

; 

-2 

"" 

ir 

o 

1 

W 

'S 

S 

o 

-s 

0) 

O 

^ 

1 

1 

w 

i 

1 
1 

f 

1 

POWER  SHOVELS  47 

41.  Method  of  Operation. — A  steam  shovel  of  the  first  class 
is  generally  operated  by  a  crew  of  7  men;  an  engineer,  a  cranes- 
man,  a  fireman,  and  4  laborers.  The  engineer  and  cranesman 
directly  control  the  movements  of  the  machine.  The  fireman 
keeps  the  boiler  supplied  with  fuel  and  water  and  sees  that  the 
machinery  is  in  good  running  order.  The  laborers  are  generally 
under  the  direct  control  of  the  cranesman  and  their  duties  con- 
sist in  the  breaking  down  of  high  banks,  assisting  in  the  loading 
of  the  dipper,  leveling  the  surface  in  front  of  the  machine,  laying 
the  new  track,  operating  the  jack  braces,  and  for  general  service 
about  the  shovel.  In  rock  excavation,  from  2  to  6  extra  laborers 
are  required  for  breaking  up  the  rock,  mud-capping,  etc. 

The  engineer  stands  at  the  set  of  levers  and  brakes  which  arc 
located  in  front  of  the  machinery.  The  cranesman  stands  on 
a  small  platform  on  the  right  side  and  near  the  lower  end  of  the 
crane.  The  former  controls  and  directs  the  raising  and  lowering 
of  the  dipper,  the  swinging  of  the  crane,  and  the  traction  of  the 
whole  machine.  The  cranesman  controls  the  operation  of  the 
dipper,  and  of  the  dipper  handle,  regulating  the  depth  of  cut, 
releasing  the  dipper  from  the  bank  and  emptying  it  into  the  car, 
wagon,  or  spoil  bank. 

The  process  of  excavation  commences  with  the  dipper  handle 
nearly  vertical  and  the  dipper  resting  on  the  floor  of  the  pit 
with  the  cutting  edge  directed  toward  the  bank.  The  engineer 
then  moves  a  lever  throwing  the  hoisting  drum  into  gear  and  start- 
ing the  engine.  The  revolution  of  the  hoisting  drum  winds  up  the 
hoisting  lines  and  pulls  the  dipper  upward.  Simultaneously, 
the  cranesman  starts  the  thrusting  engine  and  moves  the  dipper 
handle  forward  as  the  dipper  rises.  These  two  motions  must  be 
made  smoothly  and  coordinately  or  the  hoisting  engine  will  be 
stalled  and  the  whole  machine  tipped  suddenly  forward.  When 
the  shovel  has  reached  the  top  of  the  cut  or  its  highest  practicable 
position,  the  engineer  throws  the  hoisting  drum  out  of  gear  and 
sets  the  friction  clutch  with  a  foot  brake,thus  bringing  the  dipper 
to  a  stop.  Immediately,  the  cranesman  releases  his  brake  and 
slightly  reverses  the  thrusting  engine  which  thus  draws  back  the 
dipper  handle  and  withdraws  the  dipper  from  the  face  of  the 
excavation. 

When  the  dipper  digs  clear  of  the  excavation  it  is  unnecessary 
to  release  it  as  described  for  the  last  motion.  The  engineer  then 
starts  the  swinging  engine  into  operation  and  moves  the  crane  to 


48       EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

the  side  until  the  dipper  is  over  the  dumping  place.  With  a  foot 
brake  he  sets  the  friction  clutch  controlling  the  swinging  drums 
and  stops  the  sidewise  motion  of  the  crane.  The  cranesman  then 
pulls  the  latch  rope,  which  opens  the  latch  and  allows  the  door  at 
the  bottom  of  the  dipper  to  drop  and  to  release  the  contents. 
The  engineer  releases  the  friction  clutch  by  the  foot  brakes  and 
reverses  the  swinging  engine,  pulling  the  crane  and  dipper  back 
to  position  for  the  next  cut.  As  the  boom  is  swung  around,  the 
engineer  gradually  releases  the  friction  clutch  of  the  hoisting  drum 
and  allows  the  dipper  to  slowly  drop  toward  the  bottom  of  the  cut. 
When  near  the  point  of  commencing  the  new  cut  and  as  the  dip- 
per handle  approaches  a  vertical  position,  the  cranesman  releases 
the  friction  clutch  on  the  hoisting  engine  with  his  foot  brake. 
Thus,  as  the  last  part  of  the  drop  is  made  by  the  dipper,  it  is  also 
brought  into  proper  position  and  the  length  of  the  dipper  arm 
regulated  for  the  commencement  of  the  new  cut.  As  the  dipper 
drops  into  place,  the  bottom  door  closes  and  latches  by  its  own 
weight.  The  time  required  to  make  a  complete  swing  depends 
upon  the  character  of  the  material  and  the  skill  of  the  operator, 
but  under  ordinary  conditions  this  should  average  between  20 
and  40  seconds. 

After  the  entire  face  of  the  cut  has  been  removed  within  reach 
of  the  dipper,  the  shovel  is  moved  ahead.  When  the  shovel 
moves  on  a  track,  a  new  section  of  track  is  laid  ahead  of  the 
section  on  which  the  machine  rests.  The  laborers  release  the 
jack  screws  of  the  braces,  and  the  engineer  throws  the  propelling 
gear  into  place,  starts  the  engine,  and  the  shovel  moves  ahead  3  to 
5  feet.  The  jack  braces  are  then  set  into  position,  the  wheels 
are  blocked,  and  the  shovel  is  ready  for  another  cut.  The  maxi- 
mum width  of  cut  depends  upon  the  size  of  shovel,  length  of 
crane,  height  of  face,  etc.,  and  varies  from  15  to  30  feet.  The 
shovel  may  cut  on  a  level  or  slightly  descending  grade  and  by 
working  back  and  forth  on  different  levels  may  excavate  a  cut  of 
almost  any  depth  and  width. 

The  steam  shovel  of  the  fixed-platform  class  will  excavate 
any  material  except  solid  rock,  which  must  first  be  blasted  down 
and  broken  up  into  pieces  small  enough  for  the  dipper  to  handle. 
The  excavated  material  may  be  dumped  into  and  carried  away 
by:  (1)  dump  wagons,  hauled  by  teams  or  by  traction  engines; 
(2)  dump  cars  holding  from  1}^  to  6  cu.  yd.,  drawn  by  horses 
or  dinkey  locomotives  over  narrow-gage  track;  and  (3)  dump  cars 


POWER  SHOVELS 


49 


of  large  size,  from  4  to   12  cu.  yd.,  or  gondola  or  flat  cars 
hauled   by   large-sized   locomotives   over   standard-gage  track. 
The  dimensions  and  working  limitations  of  a  well-known  make 
of  steam  shovel  of  this  class  are  shown  in  Fig.  27  and  Table  III. 


Fio.  27. — Diagram  of  limitations  of  the  Atlantic  steam  shovel.     (Courtesy    of 

Bucyrus  Co.) 


TABLE  III. — WORKING  LIMITS  OP  A  FIXED-PLATFORM  SHOVEL 


Type 

Chain 

Wire-rope 

Class 

noc 

100  C 

85  C 

70  C 

60  C 

40  C  or  R 

80 

45 

Dumping  radius,  A  

32' 

29' 

29' 

27' 

25' 

21'  6" 

33' 

27' 

Height  of  dump   B 

17' 

17' 

16'  6" 

16'  6" 

16' 

12' 

18'  6" 

16'  6" 

Depth  of  cut,  shovel  track 
to  loading  track,  C  

10' 

10' 

9/  6" 

9'  6" 

V 

5' 

11'  6" 

9'  6" 

Maximum  depth  of  through 
cut,  D  

16' 

15'  6" 

15' 

14' 

13' 

7'  9" 

16'  6" 

13'  6" 

Digging    radius  —  8-ft.    El- 
evation, E  .  .    . 

33' 

33' 

33' 

30' 

27' 

23' 

32' 

26' 

Spread  of  jack  screws,  F...  . 

22' 

20' 

20' 

18'  4" 

18' 

15' 

19' 

18' 

Height  of  boom,  G  

33' 

28'  9" 

29'  1" 

27'  0#" 

26'  9// 

21'  3*$" 

33' 

27'  7" 

Depth  of  cut  below  rail,  H 

6' 

5'  6" 

5'  6" 

4'  6" 

4' 

2'  9" 

5' 

4' 

50       EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


The  values  for  "  Digging  Radius  at  8-ft.  Elevation,  v  given 
in  Table  III,  are  theoretical  figures  which  are  generally  not 
realized  in  practice.  It  would  be  conservative  to  use  values  of 
from  60  per  cent,  to  80  per  cent,  of  those  given  in  the  table  for 
actual  working  conditions. 

The  output  of  a  steam  shovel  depends  on  its  size,  the  character 
of  the  material  to  be  excavated,  the  efficiency  of  the  crew,  climatic 
conditions,  location  of  material  with  relation  to  the  shovel, 

TABLE  IV.  —  STEAM  SHOVEL  SERVICE 


Division 

Shovel  size 
(tons) 

45 

55 

65 

70 

75 

90 

95 

Summary 

Iron  ore  

Observations 
Maximum 
Minimum 
Average 

7 
1512 
892 
1095 

1 

2728 
2728 
2728 

1 
1350 
1350 
1350 

9 
2728 
1305 
892 

Sand  and  gravel  

Observations 
Maximum 
Minimum 
Average 

2 
373 
360 
366 

3 

5 
3300 
360 
1566 

3300 
1602 
2365 

Earth  and  glacial  drift  

• 

Observations 

1 

1065 
1065 
1065 

3 

1426 
569 
893 

.... 

1 

1073 
1073 
1073 

5 
1426 
569 
963 

.... 



Rock  

Observations 
Maximum 
Minimum 
Average 

.... 

.... 

5 
896 

264 
601 

16 

1542 
168 
682 

.... 

.... 

5 
1200 
154 
873 

26 
1542 
154 
704 

.... 

.... 

Clay  

Observations 
Maximum 
Minimum 
Average 

.  .  .  . 

1 
320 
320 
320 

2 

780 
474 
627 

5 
1415 
498 
1064 

1 

820 
820 
820 

1 
2728 
2728 
2728 

1 
990 
990 
990 

10 
1450 
320 

870 

General  Summary  

Observations 
Maximum 
Minimum 
Average 

2 
373 
360 
366 

1 
320 
320 
320 

8 
1065 
264 
665 

34 
3300 
168 
991 

1 
820 
820 
820 

1350 
154 
972 

55 
3300 
168 
934 

NOTE. — Figures  give  daily  output  in  cu.  yd. 


relation  of  shovel  to  point  of  dumping,  efficiency  of  wagon  or 
car  service,  etc.  When  working  under  favorable  conditions,  the 
maximum  working  capacity  of  a  shovel  will  average  about  one- 
half  of  its  theoretical  capacity  as  rated  by  the  manufacturers. 
A  shovel  is  generally  in  actual  operation  about  40  per  cent,  of  the 
working  time,  and  delays  for  repairs,  coaling,  watering,  oiling, 


POWER  SHOVELS  51 


etc.     The  log  of  efficient  shovel  operation  under  favorable  work- 
ing conditions  would  be  about  as  follows: 

Time 
Operation  (per  cent.) 

Moving  shovel 10 

Breaking  up  rock,  mucking,  etc 10 

Waiting  for  cars  or  wagons 15 

Repairs 5 

Actual  loading 60 


Total 100 

Table  IV  gives  the  actual  output  of  about  50  shovels,  which 
were  in  actual  operation  for  several  weeks.  These  records  were 
collected  by  Mr.  R.  T.  Dana,  of  the  Construction  Service  Com- 
pany of  New  York. 

42.  Field  of  Use. — The  steam  shovel  of  the  fixed  platform  type 
may  be  called  the  universal  American  excavator  for  dry-land 
excavation.     It  can  excavate  any  kind  of  soil  except  solid  rock 
and  can  operate  satisfactorily  wherever  the  soil  is  firm  enough  to 
support  its  weight  and  the  magnitude  of  the  work  is  sufficient  to 
warrant  its  use. 

The  steam  shovel  was  first  devised  for  railroad  construction, 
but  during  the  past  quarter  of  a  century  its  scope  has  been  gradu- 
ally extended  to  include  the  excavation  of  gravel  and  clay  pits, 
stone  quarries,  ore  beds,  and  tunnels,  the  construction  of  canals, 
embankments,  levees,  reservoirs,  etc. 

43.  Cost  of  Operation. — The  cost  of  operating  a  steam  shovel 
depends  upon  the  class  of  work,  the  kind  of  material  to  be  excava- 
ted, the  size  and  efficiency  of  the  machine,  the  peculiar  conditions 
affecting  each  job,  the  facilities  for  removing  the  material,  etc. 

The  cost  of  operation  of  a  2^-cu.  yd.  steam  shovel  for  a  10-hr, 
day,  in  the  excavation  of  earth  and  gravel,  under  average  condi- 
tions, would  be  approximately  as  follows: 

Labor: 

1  engineer $  5. 00 

1  cranesman 4 . 00 

1  fireman ! 3.00 

%  watchman  @  $50  per  month 1 . 00 

4  pitmen  @  $1.75 7.00 

1  team  and  driver  (hauling  coal,  water,  etc.) 3. 50 


Total  labor  cost.  .  $23.50 


52       EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

Fuel  and  Supplies: 

3  tons  of  coal  @  $4.00 $12.00 

Oil  and  waste 1 . 50 

Water..  0.50 


Total  fuel  and  supplies $14 . 00 

General: 

Repairs $  5 . 00 

Incidental  expenses 2 . 40 

Depreciation  (5  per  cent,  of  $12,000) 3 . 00 

Interest  (6  per  cent,  of  $12,000) 3 . 60 


Total  general  cost $14 . 00 

Total  cost  of  operation  per  10-hr,  day $51 . 50 

Average  excavation 1700  cu.  yd. 

Average  cost  of  operating  shovel,  $51.50  -f-  1700  =      3.0^.  per 

cu.  yd. 

The  same  steam  shovel  used  in  the  excavation  of  a  stiff  clay 
or  shale  would  probably  require  the  service  of  two  extra  laborers 
at. $1.75  a  day  each.  The  average  daily  excavation  would  vary 
from  800  to  1200  cu.  yd.,  or  with  a  mean  of  1000  cu.  yd.,  the  cost 
of  operating  the  shovel  would  be  about  5  cents  per  cubic  yard. 

For  the  excavation  of  rock  which  requires  blasting,  the  crew 
for  earth  excavation  would  be  increased  as  follows: 

4  pitmen    @  $1.75 $7.00 

2  laborers  @  $1.50..  3.00 


$10.00 

The  amount  of  coal  used  would  be  increased  by  1  ton, 

making  an  added  fuel  expense  of 4 . 00 

The  following  item,  would  be  added  for  blasting:  dyna- 
mite, powder,  caps,  fuse,  etc 1 .50 


Total  cost  of  operating  shovel  per  10-hr,  day $66.50 

Average  excavation 800  cu.  yd. 

Cost  of  operating  shovel 8 . 3  £.    per 

cu.  yd. 

The  above  statements  do  not  include  the  cost  of  transport- 
ing the  shovel  to  and  from  the  work,  the  cost  of  living  and  camp 
expenses,  office  and  other  incidental  expenses. 


POWER  SHOVELS  53 

The  cost  of  the  disposal  of  the  excavated  material  varies 
from  nothing  when  the  material  is  directly  dumped  upon  the  sides 
of  the  excavation,  to  15  or  20  cents  per  cubic  yard,  when  the 
material  must  be  hauled  a  long  distance  and  spread.  The  dis- 
posal generally  consists  of  two  operations  —  the  hauling  and  the 
dumping.  The  cost  cf  hauling  varies  with  the  conveyance  used, 
dump  wagon  or  car,  and  the  length  of  the  haul.  On  railroad  work 
the  cost  may  sometimes  be  increased  by  delays  of  the  trains  of 
dump  cars.  The  cost  varies  from  3  to  12  cents  per  cubic  yard. 
The  cost  of  dumping  varies  from  J/£  cent  per  cubic  yard  for 
wagons  to  lj^  cents  per  cubic  yard  for  cars. 


SECOND   CLASS—  REVOLVING   SHOVELS 

44.  Construction.  —  The  revolving  shovel  is  designed  for  light, 
rapid  work  and  easy  transportation  over  roads.  The  essential 
features  of  this  type  of  shovel  are  a  lower  or  truck  platform  on 
which  are  located  the  operating  and  excavating  equipment. 

PLATFORMS 

The  lower  or  truck  platform  is  made  up  of  a  rectangular  frame 
of  steel  I-beams  and  channels,  strongly  braced  and  riveted 
together.  This  platform  rests  on  two  steel  axles,  the  front  one 
pivoted  and  the  rear  one  fixed  in  position.  The  propulsion  of  the 
machine  under  its  own  power  is  affected  by  chain  or  gear  drive 
actuated  from  the  main  shaft  of  the  engine.  By  turning  the  front 
axle  the  direction  of  the  machine's  movement  may  be  governed. 
The  wheels  are  small  in  diameter,  of  wide-tired  wood  or  steel, 
or  flanged  railroad  wheels  when  the  shovel  is  to  operate  on  a 
track.  Upon  the  top  of  the  steel  frame  is  fastened  a  large, 
heavy  steel  casting  which  comprises  a  circular  gear,  the  roller 
track  and  the  central  journal  or  gudgeon,  which  supports  the 
revolving  frame. 

The  upper  frame  carries  the  machinery  and  the  boom,  and  cor- 
responds to  the  car-body  of  the  First  Class  shovel.  This  plat- 
form is  a  rigid  framework  of  structural-steel  members  which  are 
strongly  braced  and  riveted.  A  heavy  cast-steel  socket  is  located 
on  the  under  side  of  the  frame  and  rests  on  the  journal  of  the 
lower  frame.  The  whole  operating  machanism  of  the  shovel 


54       EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

can  rotate  in  a  complete  circle  about  the  lower  truck  frame, 
well-known  make  of  revolving  shovel  is  shown  in  Fig.  28. 


FIG.  28. — Bucyrus  revolving  steam  shovel.     (Courtesy  of  Bucyrus  Co.) 


POWER   EQUIPMENT 

The  power  equipment  of  a  revolving  steam  shovel  consists  of 
a  vertical  boiler  and  the  engines  for  hoisting,  swinging,  and 
thrusting. 

The  boiler  is  of  the  vertical,  submerged,  multi-tubular  type, 
and  made  to  operate  under  a  working  pressure  of  from  100  Ib. 
to  125  pounds.  The  boiler  feed  consists  of  an  injector  and  a 
pump,  which  can  supply  water  to  the  boiler  while  the  shovel  is 
in  operation.  The  boiler  is  located  on  the  rear  end  of  the  upper 
platform. 

The  engines  are  all  double-cylinder,  horizontal,  and  reversible. 
The  swinging  and  hoisting  engines  are  located  in  front  of  the 
boiler  near  the  front  end  of  the  upper  platform.  The  thrusting 
engine  is  located  on  the  upper  side  of  the  crane  or  boom.  The 
hoisting  drum  is  controlled  by  a  friction  band  which  is  operated 


POWER  SHOVELS 


55 


Fio.    29. — Operating  machinery  of    a    revolving    shovel.     (Courtesy   of   Thew 

Automatic  Shovel  Co.) 


Fio.  30. — Revolving  shovel  operated  by   gasoline  power.     (Courtesy  of  Thew 
Automatic  Shovel  Co.) 


56       EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

by  a  foot  lever.  Figure  29  shows  the  swinging  and  hoisting 
engines  of  a  well-known  make  of  revolving  shovel.  The  thrust- 
ing engine  in  several  makes  is  of  the  double,  horizontal,  reversible 
type  which  is  used  on  shovels  of  the  fixed-platform  class.  One 
make,  the  Thew  Automatic  Shovel,  uses  a  very  unique  and  effi- 
cient method  of  thrusting  or  crowding  the  dipper.  A  carriage  or 
trolley  to  which  is  hinged  the  upper  end  of  the  dipper  arm,  moves 
horizontally  along  a  track.  As  the  carriage  moves  forward,  the 
center  of  rotation  of  the  dipper  is  changed  and  produces  a  prying 
action.  The  crowding  motion  is  always  in  a  horizontal  direction. 
The  movement  of  the  carriage  is  controlled  by  the  cranesman, 
who  operates  the  throttle  lever  of  the  crowding  engine.  The 
throttle  is  also  connected  to  a  "trip, "  which  automatically  shuts 
off  the  steam  when  the  carriage  reaches  either  end  of  the  track- 
way, Fig.  30. 

Gasoline  power  can  be  used  to  great  economic  advantage  when 
coal  is  high  in  price  and  inaccessible.  The  prime  mover  is  then  a 
gasoline  engine  which  is  mounted  on  the  rear  of  the  platform  and 
belt-connected  to  the  operating  units.  See  Fig.  30. 

The  upper  platform  is  provided  with  a  housing  of  wood  or 
corrugated  steel  for  the  enclosure  and  protection  of  the  machinery. 

EXCAVATING  EQUIPMENT 

The  crane  or  boom  is  a  structural  frame  of  steel,  or  of  steel 
and  wood.  The  lower  end  is  hinged  to  the  turntable  and  the 
upper  end  is  supported  by  guy  rods  which  extend  to  the  rear 
corners  of  the  upper  frame.  The  boom  is  made  in  two  sections 
and  so  arranged  that  the  dipper  handle  may  move  between 
them.  Upon  the  upper  side  of  the  boom  is  located  the  thrusting 
mechanism. 

The  dipper  handle  is  of  steel,  or  hardwood  reinforced  with  steel 
plates.  The  lower  end  of  the  handle  is  attached  to  the  dipper. 
Upon  the  under  side  of  the  handle  is  the  steel-toothed  rack  which 
engages  the  pinion  of  the  shipper  shaft,  which  is  the  gear-operating 
mechanism  of  the  thrusting  engine.  In  the  Thew  shovel,  the 
dipper  handle  is  made  of  steel  and  in  two  sections;  the  lower 
member  telescopes  into  the  upper  section,  and  the  two  may  be 
clamped  in  any  position. 

The  dipper  is  usually  constructed  of  steel  plates  and  forgings. 
The  cutting  edge  is  usually  made  of  manganese  steel  and  for  hard 


POWER  SHOVELS 


57 


soils  is  provided  with  tool-steel  teeth  which  can  be  removed  and 
replaced  when  worn  out  or  broken. 


A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

I 

J 

K 

Type 
No. 

ja 

B 

| 

• 

3 

08 

a 

•o 
> 

o 

6 

1 

C3 

§ 

0 

2 

V 

U 

J 

U 

K 

44 

1 

O2 

I 

o 

K 

| 

Q  3 

9 

M 
C   u 

"o 

M 

"8 

*o 

•o 
c 
W 

4 

0 

*j 

*o 

*j 

0 

Q« 

B 
Q 

si 

s* 

E 

3 

Q 

V 

J 

1 

1 

t£ 

C 

'5 

w 

H 

S^ 

"3 

K 

s 

B 

£ 

A-O 

lO'O* 

21'0* 

19'0* 

13'6* 

5'0* 

19'0* 

18'6* 

9'4* 

a'a* 

12'S" 

2'8* 

7'0* 

O 

lO'O* 

22/0* 

19'9" 

15'G* 

5'6* 

ig'o* 

19'0* 

9'9* 

S'G" 

12'6* 

2'8' 

8'0* 

OHigh 
Lift 

12'0" 

22'9* 

20'9* 

15'6* 

5'0* 

22'0'r 

18'0" 

9'9* 

3'6' 

12'6* 

2'8' 

8'0* 

O  Fertilizer 

lO'O* 

18'0* 

16'0" 

12'0* 

6'9* 

15'0* 

1072* 

5'8* 

2'ir 

12'0* 

7'0* 

O  Elec.  Ry. 

lO'O* 

22'0* 

20'0* 

15'6* 

5'0' 

*15'6* 

19'0* 

T'e* 

3'0* 

12/0* 

TO" 

A-I 

10'6* 

24'0* 

21'6* 

18'0* 

670* 

21'0* 

19/6* 

9'11' 

S'10* 

13'6* 

4'0* 

8'10* 

A-Igjf 

13'6" 

27'0'r 

24'6* 

19'6* 

G'O* 

24'0* 

21'e* 

IQ'6* 

S'10* 

13'6" 

4'0* 

8'10* 

I 

10'6* 

24'6* 

22'G" 

18'G* 

TO' 

21'0' 

21'0* 

11'6* 

4'2* 

ll'O* 

3'10* 

9'2* 

i  a? 

IG'O* 

28'0* 

24'G* 

19'0* 

TO' 

26'6'r 

IS'O* 

11'6* 

4'2* 

14'0* 

3'10' 

9'2" 

3 

ll'O* 

28'6* 

25'9* 

20'6* 

8'6* 

23'6* 

24'0* 

12'0'r 

4'3* 

14'G*' 

3'10* 

9'9* 

This  dimension  18'  6*  when  boom  is  extended. 
Fio.   31.— Diagram    of 


limitations    of    revolving    shovel. 
Automatic  Shovel  Co.) 


(Courtesy    of    Thew 


45.  Method  of  Operation. — A  revolving  steam  shovel  is 
generally  operated  by  a  crew  of  three  to  five  men ;  an  engineer,  a 
fireman,  and  one  to  three  laborers.  The  engineer  controls  the 


58       EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

operation  of  the  machine.  The  fireman  feeds  the  boiler  with  fuel 
and  water  and  keeps  the  machinery  oiled  and  greased.  The  labor- 
ers haul  coal,  assist  in  the  loading  of  the  shovel  in  hard  material, 
break  down  the  bank,  plank  the  floor  of  the  excavation  for  the 
support  of  the  shovel,  etc.  The  engineer  stands  at  the  set  of 
levers  and  brakes  which  are  located  near  the  front  end  of  the  upper 
platform.  The  method  of  operation  of  this  type  of  shovel  is 
similar  to  that  of  the  fixed-platform  class,  and  the  reader  is  re- 
ferred to  the  detailed  description  given  under  that  section.  Note, 
however,  that  in  the  case  of  the  revolving  shovel,  there  is  no 
cranesman,  and  the  engineer  directly  controls  the  three  operating 
motions  of  hoisting,  swinging,  and  thrusting. 

The  revolving  shovel  will  excavate  any  class  of  material, 
except  solid  rock,  which  must  first  be  blasted  down  and  broken 
into  pieces  of  a  size  which  can  be  handled  by  the  dipper.  The 
excavated  material  may  be  dumped  into  spoil  banks  along  the  side 
of  the  excavation,  or  into  wagons  hauled  by  horses  or  traction 
engines,  or  into  dump  cars  hauled  by  dinkey  locomotives  over  a 
narrow-gage  track. 

The  dimensions  and  working  limitations  of  an  efficient  make 
of  revolving  steam  shovel  of  the  revolving-platform  class  are 
given  in  Fig.  31.  In  column  1  of  the  table  the  class  numbers 
correspond  to  dipper  capacities  of  %,  %,  lj£  or  1%,  %  or  1  (for 
shale  excavation),  and  1%  cu.  yd.,  respectively. 

The  actual  working  capacities  of  revolving  shovels  depend 
upon  the  nature  of  the  material,  depth  of  cut,  efficiency  of  haul- 
ing equipment,  efficiency  of  engineer,  size,  capacity,  and  efficiency 
of  shovel,  etc.  In  ordinary  clay,  under  average  working  condi- 
tions, with  a  cut  of  from  5  ft.  to  10  ft.,  the  output  for  a  10-hr, 
day  should  average  from  about  500  cu.  yd.,  for  a  ^-cu.  yd. 
machine,  to  1000  cu.  yd.  for  a  1%-cu.  yd.  machine. 

46.  Field  of  Use. — The  revolving  shovel  is  a  very  efficient  and 
serviceable  machine  for  the  excavation  of  dry  soils  when  the 
required  output  does  not  exceed  about  1000  cu.  yd  per  10-hr, 
working  day.  When  the  excavation  is  light  and  widely  distrib- 
uted over  a  wide  area  or  within  narrow  limits  for  long  distances, 
this  type  of  shovel  is  much  more  economical  than  its  larger  and 
heavier  protypes  of  the  fixed-platform  class.  Hence,  in  recent 
years,  the  revolving  shovel  has  been  successfully  adapted  to 
allotment  grading,  highway  and  street  grading,  railroad  construc- 
tion, cellar  and  reservoir  excavation,  sewer  trench  construction t 


POWER  SHOVELS  59 

stripping  of  quarries,  the  operation  of  gravel  pits,  brick  yards, 
etc.,  etc. 

The  revolving  shovel  has  a  wide  scope  of  usefulness  on  account 
of  its  light  weight,  portability,  full  circle  swing,  hill  climbing 
power  and  thrusting  device  for  dipper  operation. 

47.  Cost  of  Operation. — The  cost  of  operation  of  a  revolving 
shovel  depends  upon  the  class  of  work,  the  character  of  the  soil, 
the  size  of  the  machine,  the  facilities  for  removing  the  material, 
the  peculiar  conditions  affecting  each  job,  etc. 

The  cost  of  operation  of  a  %-yd.  revolving  steam  shovel  for  a 
10-hr,   day,  in  the  operation  of  clay  or  gravel,  under  average 
conditions  would  be  approximately  as  follows: 
Labor: 

1  engineer $5 . 00 

1  fireman 3.00 

1  laborer 2.00 

Total  labor  cost $10.00 

Fuel  and  Supplies: 

M  ton  coal  @  $4.00 $2.00 

H  gal.  cylinder  oil  @  50<< 0. 08 

iHo  gal.  engine  oil  @  40^ 0 . 04 

Waste,  packing,  etc 0.18 

Total  cost  of  fuel  and  supplies $  2 . 30 

General  and  Overhead  Charges: 

Depreciation  (based  on  20-year  life) $0. 75 

Interest  @  6%     0.85 

Repairs,  incidentals,  etc 1 . 40 


Total  fixed  charges $  3 . 00 

Total  cost  for  10-hr,  day $15.30 

Average  daily  output 300  cu.  yd. 

Average  cost  of  operating  shovel,  $15.30  -f-  300   =  $0.051  per 

cu.  yd. 

The  above  statement  does  not  include  the  cost  of  transport- 
ing the  shovel  to  and  from  the  work,  the  cost  of  living  and  camp 
expenses,  office  and  other  incidental  expenses.  It  is  assumed 
that  the  magnitude  of  the  job  warrants  the  use  of  dump  wagons 
or  other  suitable  transportation  equipment  for  the  removal  of  the 
excavated  material. 


60       EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


48.  Electrically  Operated  Shovels. — When  electric  power  is 
available  at  low  cost  and  in  a  sufficient  and  uninterrupted  supply, 
as  in  a  large  city  or  along  the  lines  of  large  power  plants,  recent 
experience  has  shown  the  economy  of  the  operation  of  power 
shovels  by  this  form  of  power. 

Advantages  of  Electric  Power. — When  electric  power  costs 
3  cents  per  kilowatt  hour  and  coal  costs  $5.00  per  ton,  the  cost 
of  operation  of  an  electric  shovel  is  about  one-half  that  of  a  steam 
shovel.  Under  favorable  conditions,  the  use  of  electric  power 
is  desirable  and  economical  for  the  following  reasons: 

1.  Less  labor  required  for  operation;  does  away  with  the  fireman 
and  shovel  becomes  a  one-man  machine. 

2.  Eliminates  the  expense  and  handling  of  coal  and  water. 

3.  Economy  of  power ;  as  power  is  only  used  when  shovel  is  opera- 
ting.    Steam  must  be  kept  up  continuously  in  case  of  steam  shovel. 

4.  Operation  is  smoother,  steadier  and  quieter  than  that  of 
steam  shovel. 

5.  Eliminates  trouble  of  freezing  pipes  in  cold  weather  and 
boiler  temperature  in  hot  weather. 

6.  Eliminates  labor  of  banking  fires  at  night  and  delay  in 
getting  up  steam  at  commencement  of  work. 

Electric  Equipment. — The  prime  mover  is  the  electric  motoi 
which  may  be  operated  by  either  direct-  or  alternating-current 
service.  The  wound-rotor  type  of  motor  is  used  on  all  of  the 
motions,  when  alternating  current  is  available.  When  direct 
current  is  used,  compound-wound  motors  are  used  with  the 
exception  of  a  series  motor  which  is  sometimes  used  on  the  hoist- 
ing motion.  The  various  sizes  of  motors  for  the  various  ca- 
pacities of  shovels  are  given  in  Table  V. 

TABLE   V. — SIZES  OF   MOTORS 


Weight  of 
shovel 
(tons) 

Size  of  dipper 
(cu.  yd.) 

Power  of  motors 

Hoist 
(h.p.) 

Swing 
(h.p.) 

Thrust, 
(h.p.) 

30 

1 

50 

30 

30 

35 

IK 

50 

30 

•     30 

35 

1M 

60 

30 

30 

35 

IK 

75 

35 

35 

42 

m- 

75 

30 

.30 

65 

2 

100 

35 

35 

95 

3H 

150 

50 

50 

100 

4 

200 

80 

80 

POWER  SHOVELS  61 

Shovel  service  is  unusually  severe  on  electric  equipment, 
especially  on  the  hoist  and  thrust  motors.  On  the  hoist  motor, 
the  work  is  generally  at  high  torque  and  low  speed  and  the  motor 
is  frequently  stalled  when  the  shovel  strikes  an  obstruction  or 
is  digging  in  hard  rock.  The  sudden  starting  or  stopping  of 
the  boom  likewise  tends  to  stall  the  motoi  and  burn  it  out. 
The  motors  must  be  controlled  by  automatic  magnetic  controllers 
and  so  designed  that  the  torque  and  radiating  capacity  will  be 
proportioned  to  the  work  to  be  done.  The  controller  for  any 
motor  must  be  supplied  with  proper  resistance  to  allow  maximum 
work  to  be  secured  without  burning  out  the  motor.  Quick  accel- 
eration and  instant  braking  of  the  motor  must  be  provided  for. 
The  thrust  motor  is  subjected  to  the  severest  service  as  maxi- 
mum torque  or  power  must  be  exerted  when  the  motor  is  practi- 
cally at  a  standstill.  Such  a  motor  is  frequently  stalled  and  at 
these  times  the  torque  must  remain  nearly  constant.  A  prevent- 
ing resistance  must  be  provided  for  the  motor  which  is  generally 
connected  through  a  friction  clutch  which  will  hold  up  to  a  point 
corresponding  to  a  value  slightly  less  than  the  maximum  torque 
of  the  motor  but  which  will  still  permit  the  motor  to  revolve 
slowly  when  a  greater  torque  is  required. 

The  whole  equipment  must  be  of  the  rugged  type  to  withstand 
the  severe  vibration  of  shovel  operation.  All  electric  shovels 
use  motors  of  600  volt  capacity  or  lower.  On  revolving  shovels, 
a  single  motor  drive  has  been  found  to  be  the  more  satisfactory 
on  account  of  the  economy  in  initial  cost  and  the  simplicity 
and  flexibility  of  operation.  On  the  smaller  shovels  using  motors 
not  over  50  h.p.  capacity,  drum  reversing  controllers  are  gener- 
ally used,  while  on  the  larger  shovels,  magnetic  switch  controllers 
operated  from  master  switches,  are  used. 

The  current  is  taken  from  trolley  wires,  or  a  transformer, 
on  a  high  power  line,  and  is  received  through  the  truck  by  wire 
cables.  In  the  case  of  revolving  shovels,  the  current  is  trans- 
mitted to  the  motor  above  through  copper  rings  on  the  truck 
frame  and  carbon  brushes  suspended  from  the  rotating  turntable. 

49.  Field  of  Usefulness. — The  electric-power  shovel  is  espe- 
cially adapted  to  the  construction  of  city  and  interurban  electric 
lines.  The  electrically  operated  revolving  shovel  is  the  most 
efficient  excavator  for  track  trenching  which  requires  the  shallow 
excavation  of  dense,  hard  material  to  a  uniform  grade. 

In  recent  years,  this  type  of  shovel  has  been  successfully 


62       EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


FIG.  32. — Electrically  operated  shovel  on  quarry  work.     (Courtesy  of  Westing- 
house  Elec.  &  Mfg.  Co. 


FIG.  33. — An  electrically  operated  revolving  shovel.     (Courtesy  of  Thew  Auto- 
matic Shovel  Co.) 


POWER  SHOVELS  63 

adapted  to  the  excavation  of  mines  and  tunnels,  for  plant  service 
in  handling  ores,  fuel,  fertilizer,  etc.,  and  for  use  in  brickyards, 
gravel  pits,  etc. 

Figure  32  shows  an  electrically  operated  shovel  in  the  quarry 
work  of  a  cement  plant  and  Fig.  33  a  revolving  shovel  on  in- 
terurban  railway  construction. 

50.  Resume. — The  steam  shovel  is  one  of  the  most  efficient 
and  universally  useful  of  modern  excavators.  When  the  soil  is 
sufficiently  firm  to  support  it  and  the  work  is  of  sufficient  mag- 
nitude to  warrant  its  use,  it  can  be  used  economically  for  all 
classes  of  work,  such  as  railroad  cuts,  the  excavation  of  streets, 
trenches,  ditches,  cellars,  the  stripping  of  ore  beds,  gravel  pits 
and  clay  beds,  etc.,  etc.  It  can  be  used  for  the  excavation 
of  all  kinds  of  material  from  loam  and  clay  to  hard-pan  and  rock. 
Rock  in  formation  must  be  loosened  by  blasting  before  the  shovel 
can  handle  it. 

The  output  of  a  steam  shovel  depends  on  its  size,  the  character 
of  the  material  to  be  excavated,  the  efficiency  of  the  crew,  the 
climatic  conditions,  location  of  material  with  relation  to  the 
shovel,  relation  of  shovel  to  point  of  dumping,  efficiency  of 
wagon  or  car  service,  etc.  When  working  under  favorable  condi- 
tions, the  maximum  working  capacity  of  a  shovel  will  average 
about  one-half  of  its  theoretical  efficiency.  It  is  almost  im- 
posible  to  keep  a  shovel  continuously  suppplied  with  wagons  or 
cars  and  even  so,  this  would  mean  perfect  operation  without  de- 
lays for  repairs,  breaks,  coaling,  watering,  oiling,  etc. 

The  cost  of  operation  and  capacity  of  a  steam  shovel,  as  stated 
in  the  previous  paragraph,  depend  on  a  great  many  factors, 
and  it  is  difficult  to  arrive  at  any  stated  values.  Recent  results 
from  the  use  of  steam  shovels,  on  the  Panama  Canal  indicate 
the  following: 

A  70-ton  shovel,  equipped  with  a  2^-cu.  yd.  dipper  will  average  1200 
cu.  yd.  of  earth  excavation  during  an  8-hr,  working  day. 

A  95-ton  shovel,  equipped  with  a  5-cu.  yd.  dipper  will  average  2500 
cu.  yd.  of  earth  and  rock  excavation  and  2000  cu.  yd.  of  rock,  during  an 
8-hr,  working  day. 

For  the  making  of  estimates,  the  author  would  suggest  adding  the  follow- 
ing to  the  estimated  cost  of  operation: 

Ten  per  cent,  on  initial  cost  of  plant  for  depreciation, 

Six  per  cent,  on  initial  cost  of  plant  for  interest  on  investment, 

Five  per  cent,  on  initial  cost  of  plant  for  repairs. 


64       EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

The  small,  revolving  type  of  shovel  has  demonstrated  its 
efficiency  for  ordinary  jobs  such  as  small  railroad  cuts,  street 
grading,  cellar  excavation  and  for  use  in  the  clay  pits  of  brick- 
yards and  cement  works.  The  electrically  operated  shovel  is  the 
most  economical  for. electric  traction  work  and  in  large  cities 
where  the  current  is  accessible  at  a  low  unit  cost. 

Hand  shoveling  has  been  almost  entirely  superseded  by  power- 
machine  shoveling,  on  work  where  the  amount  of  work  will  justify 
the  cost  of  installation  of  the  plant.  The  relative  economy  of 
the  two  methods  may  be  determined  approximately  by  estimating 
the  cost  per  cubic  yard  by  hand  labor  and  the  same  cost  by  power 
machine,  including  in  the  total  cost  by  the  latter  method  the  items 
of  plant  installation,  depreciation,  interest,  and  repairs.  A  com- 
parison can  be  made  for  the  excavation  of  ordinary  soil  of  loam, 
clay,  and  sand,  under  average  working  conditions,  between  power 
shovel  and  hand  labor.  This  discussion  cannot  be  exact  as  there 
are  many  indeterminate  and  variable  conditions  of  soil,  labor, 
efficiency,  etc.,  which  will  affect  the  results  for  the  peculiar 
conditions  of  each  case.  However,  the  reader  is  urged  to  study 
the  method  of  analysis,  as  it  can  easily  be  applied  to  the  investi- 
gation of  other  methods  and  of  other  types  of  machinery. 

Illustrative  Example. — Let  us  assume  a  loam  and  clay  soil 
with  few  boulders  or  obstructions;  the  hauling  to  be  done  by 
2-yard  dump  wagons  of  sufficient  number  to  keep  the  hand 
shovelers  or  power  shovel  busy;  the  cut  to  average  8  ft.,  and 
runways  to  be  arranged  for  the  incoming  and  outgoing  teams; 
the  material  first  to  be  loosened  in  the  case  of  hand  shoveling 

COST   OF  SHOVELING    BY   HAND 
Loosening : 

1  plow  team,  with  driver  and  plow  holder; 

Team,  plow  and  driver $4 . 00 

Plow  holder 1 . 75 


Total  labor  cost,  per  day $5 . 75 

Repairs,  depreciation,  etc 1 . 25 


Total  cost  of  loosening $7 . 00 

Total  amount  of  loosened  material  (cu.  yd.) 400 

Unit  cost  of  loosening  material,  per  cu.  yd.,  $7.00  -5- 

400  =  $0.0175 
Shoveling  and  Loading: 

One  man  can  shovel  and  load  about  20  cu.  yd.  per  10-hr,  day.    Hence, 
the  plow   should  loosen  enough  material  to  keep  20  men  busy.    Loading 


.  POWER  SHOVELS  65 

dump  wagons,  these  men  can  work  efficiently  in  4  groups  of  5  men  each. 
Each  group  of  5  men  can  load  on  an  average  6  wagons  per  hour  or  50 
wagons  per  10-hr,  day,  allowing  for  delays. 

1  foreman $3 . 50 

20  laborers  @  $1 . 75  each . .  35 . 00 


Total  labor  cost,  per  day $38 . 50 

Repairs,  incidentals,  etc 1 . 50 


Total  cost  of  shoveling  and  loading $40. 00 

Total  amount  of  earth  handled  (cu.  yd.) 400 

Unit  cost  of  shoveling  and  loading,  per  cu.  yd.  $40 . 00  -H 

400  =  00.10 

Total  cost  of  hand  shoveling  400  cu.  yd 47.00 

Unit  cost  of  hand  shoveling,  per  cu.  yd.,  $47.00  -r- 

400=  $0.1175 

Assume  also  a  revolving  steam  shovel  equipped  with  a  J^-yard 
dipper  and  operated  by  an  engineer,  fireman,  and  two  pitmen. 
With  good  wagon  service,  the  average  output  will  be  500  cu. 
yd.  per  10-hr,  day.  The  shovel  will  load  on  an  average  30 
wagons  per  hour. 

COST  OF  POWER  SHOVELING 
Labor: 

I  engineer $5 . 00 

1  fireman 3.00 

2  pitmen,  @  $1 . 75  ea  h 3 . 50 

Total  labor  cost,  per  day $1 1 . 50 

Fuel  and  Supplies: 

%  ton  coal  @  $4.00.. $3.00 

Oil  and  supplies 1 . 00 


Total  fuel  and  supplies $4 . 00 

General  and  Overhead  Charges: 

Depreciation1 $1 . 00 

Interest2 1 .20 

Repairs  and  incidentals 1 . 80 


Total  fixed  charge $4. 00 


Total  cost  of  operation  per  10-hr,  day $19.50 

Average  daily  output  (cu.  yd.) 500 

Unit   cost   of  power  shovel  operation,  per  cu.  yd., 

$19.50  +  500  =     $0.039 

1  Based  on  5  per  cent,  and  20-year  life. 

2  Based  on  6  per  cent,  and  20-year  life. 

5 


66       EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

The  above  data  show  that  the  output  is  increased  by  25  per 
cent,  at  a  reduction  in  cost  of  65  per  cent,  by  the  use  of  the  steam 
shovel.  The  average  loading  time  by  hand  shoveling  was  as- 
sumed as  10  min.  and  for  the  steam  shovel  as  2  minutes.  This 
means  a  saving  of  about  4  min.  per  cubic  yard  by  the  use  of 
the  steam  shovel. 

If  the  teams  are  paid  at  the  rate  of  50  cents  per  hour  for  a 
10-hr,  day,  the  economy  in  the  value  of  the  team  time  saved, 
for  different  shovel  outputs,  will  be  as  follows: 

ECONOMY  IN  TEAM  COST 

300  cu.  yd.  per  10-hr,  day,  at  3  min.1  900  min.  or  15  hr.  @  50j*.  $7.50 

400  cu.  yd.  per  10-hr,  day,  at  3  min.1  1200  min.  or  20  hr.  @  50  jf.  10.00 

500  cu.  yd.  per  10-hr,  day,  at  3  min.1  1500  min.  or  25  hr.  @  50£.  12.50 

600  cu.  yd.  per  10-hr,  day,  at  3  min.1  1800  min.  or  30  hr.  @  50^.  15.00 

Thus,  it  will  be  noted  that  the  saving  in  team  time  per  10-hr, 
day,  on  the  basis  of  an  efficient  shovel  operation  of  600  cu. 
yd.,  is  nearly  enough  to  pay  for  the  operating  cost  of  the  shovel. 
Hence,  it  is  likewise  true  that  the  economy  resulting  from  the 
efficient  use  of  a  power  shovel  is  often  equal  to  the  entire  cost  of 
shoveling  and  loading  by  hand  methods.  If  the  job  comprised 
the  removal  of  45,000  cu.  yd.  and  hand  shoveling  cost  10 
cents  per  cubic  yard,  the  use  of  a  steam  revolving  shovel  would 
effect  a  saving  sufficient  to  pay  for  the  cost  of  the  machine. 

51.  Bibliography. — For  additional  information,  the  reader  is 
referred  to  the  following: 

Books 

1.  "American  Civil  Engineers'   Pocket  Book,"  edited  by  MANSFIELD 
MERRIMAN,  3d  edition,  published  in  1916  by  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  New  York. 
1496  pages,  1047  figures,  4^  in.  X  7  in.,     Cost,  $5.00. 

2.  "The  Chicago  Main  Drainage  Channel,"  by  C.  S.  HILL,  published  in 
1896  by  Engineering  News  Publishing  Company,  New  York.     129  pages, 
105  figures,  8  in.  X  11  in. 

3.  "Earth  and  Rock  Excavation,"  by  CHARLES  PRELINI,  published  in  1905 
by  D.   Van  Nostrand,  New  York.     421  pages,  167  figures,  6  in.  X  9  in. 
Cost,  $3.00. 

4.  "Earthwork  and  Its  Cost,"  by  H.  P.  GILLETTE,  published  in  1910  by 
Engineering  News  Publishing  Company,  New  York.     254  pages,  54  figures, 
53^  in.  X  7  in.     Cost,  $2.00. 

5.  "Handbook  of  Cost  Data,"  by  H.  P.  GILLETTE,  published  by  McGraw- 
Hill  Book  Company,  New  York.     1854  pages,  4%  in.  X  7  in.     Cost,  $5.00. 

1  Value  of  3  min.  is  used  as  being  conservative. 


POWER  SHOVELS  67 

6.  "Handbook  of  Steam-shovel  Work,"  prepared  for  the  Bucyrus  Com- 
pany of  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  by  The  Construction  Service  Company  of  New 
York.     Published  in  1911.     374  pages,  85  figures,  4  in.  X  6>£  in.     Cost, 
$1.50. 

7.  "Handbook  of  Construction  Plant,"  by  R.  T.   DANA,  published  by 
McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,   New  York.     4%  in.  X  7  in.   702    pages, 
figures.     Cost,  $5.00. 

8.  "Mechanics  of  Hoisting  Machinery,"  by  WEISBACH  and  HERMANN, 
published  in  1893  by  Macmillan  and  Company,  New  York.     329  pages, 
5%  in.  X  S%  in.,  177  figures. 

9.  "Steam  Shovels  and  Steam-shovel  Work,"  by  E.  A.  HERMANN,  pub- 
lished in  1894  by  Engineering  News  Publishing  Company,  New  York.     60 
pages,  98  figures,  7  in.  X  §1A  in. 

Magazine   Articles 

1.  Application  of  Electric  Motors  to  Shovels.     Engineering  News,  March 
19,  1914.     Illustrated,   1000  words. 

2.  Analysis   of    Trenching    Methods   and    Costs.     Engineering    Record, 
May  23,  1914.     Illustrated,  4500  words. 

3.  Company-Force  Work  on  the  Louisville  &  Nashville  Railroad.     Engi- 
neering Record,  August  9,  1913.     Illustrated,   2700  words. 

4.  Comparative  Methods  and  Costs  of  Preparing  Rock  for  Steam  Shovels. 
Engineering  &  Contracting,  April  7,  1915.     Illustrated,   1700  words. 

5.  Cost  of  Earth  Excavation  by   Steam   Shovel,    DANIEL  J.   HAUER. 
Engineering  News,  December  31,  1903.     3500  words. 

6.  Cost  of  Excavating  Earth  in  Small  Quantities  with  a  Steam  Shovel. 
Engineering-Contracting,  October  7,  1907.     900  worcjs. 

7.  Cost  of  Excavating  Earth  with  an   Electrically   Equipped   Shovel. 
Engineering-Contracting,  July  22,  1908.     700  words. 

8.  Cost  of  Steam-shovel  Work  in  Railway  Betterment,  S.  T.   NEELY. 
Engineering  News,  August  9,  1906.     2300  words. 

9.  Cost  of  Steam  Shovel  Work.     Railroad  Gazette,  December  21,  1906. 
2200  words. 

10.  Earth  Excavation,  H.  CONTAG.     Zeitschrift  des  Vereines  Deutscher 
Ingenuieure,  September  3,  1910. 

1 1  Electric  Shovel  with  Hydraulic  Transmission  Gear.     Engineering  News, 
March  30,  1916.     Illustrated,   800  words. 

12.  English   Navvies  and   American  Steam  Shovels,  A.  F.  DICKINSON. 
Gassier' s  Magazine,  November,  1910.     Illustrated,   2200  words. 

13.  Excavating  Machinery  for  Quarry  Use,  A.  L.  STEVENSON.     Quarry, 
February  1,  1902.     Illustrated,   300  words. 

14.  Excavating  for  Side  Tracks  in  Baltimore.     Contractor,  July  1,  1916. 
Illustrated,   2000  words. 

15.  Excavation  for  the  Baldwin  Reservoir.     Engineering  News,  May  4, 
1916.     Illustrated,   1200  words. 

16.  Excavation  of  Hill  View  Reservoir.     Engineering  News,  September 
9,  1915.     Illustrated,  4000  words. 

17.  Flexible  Rail  Joint  for  Steam  Shovel  Tracks.     Engineering  News, 
March  12,  1914.     Illustrated,  300  words. 


68       EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

18.  Gasoline  Shovels  are  Auxiliary  to  Steam  Equipment.     Engineering 
News,  October  21,  1915.     Illustrated,   900  words. 

19.  Improvements    in    Steam    Shovels,    WALDON    FAWCETT.     Scientific 
American,  August  1,  1903.     Illustrated,   2200  words. 

20.  Increasing  Capacity  of  Power  Shovels,   GEORGE  E.   WALSH.     Iron 
Trade  Review,  August  4,  1904.     1400  words. 

21.  Keeping  Shovels  at  Work  at  Panama,  FRED  H.  COLVIN.     American 
Machinist,  January  25,  1912.     Illustrated,   2000  words. 

22.  Large  Revolving  Steam  Shovel  for  Canal  Construction.     Engineering 
&  Contracting,  July  1,  1914.     Illustrated,   600  words. 

23.  A  Large  Steam   Shovel.     Engineering,   April  9,    1915.     Illustrated, 
1800  words. 

24.  Large  Steam  Shovels  for  Stripping  Coal  Seams.     Engineering  News, 
April  2,  1914.     Illustrated,   2500  words. 

25.  Light  Steam  Shovel  with  Scraper  Action.     Engineering  News,  April 
27,  1917.     Illustrated,   600  words. 

26.  Loading  Wagons  at  Street  Level  on  Basement  Excavation.     Contractor, 
April  1,  1916.     Illustrated,   1500  words. 

27.  Mechanical  Appliances  for  Canal  Construction,  E.  LEADER  WILLIAMS. 
Engineering  News,  October  31,  1891.     Illustrated,    1000  words. 

28.  Methods  and  Cost  of  Earth  and  Rock  Excavation  with  a  Steam  Shovel 
and  the  Cost  of  Repairing  a  Wrecked  Steam  Shovel.     Engineering-Con- 
tracting, August  5,  1908.     3000  words. 

29.  Methods  of  Excavation  for  Buildings.     Engineering  Record,  January 

16,  1915.     Illustrated,  4000  words. 

30.  Methods  and  Costs  of  Electric  Shovel  Work  Removing  Slides  and 
Side  Cutting  for  Electric  Railways,     Engineering  &  Contracting,  February 

17,  1915.     Illustrated*  1000  words. 

31.  Methods  of  Constructing  a  95-ft.  Fill  Across  Papio  Valley  on  the 
Union  Pacific  Ry.     Engineering  &  Contracting,  May  17,  1911.     Illustrated 
3500  words. 

32.  Mining  Magnetite  by  Steam  Shovel  in  Sweden,  A.  S.  RICE.     Iron 
Trade  Review,  November  27,  1913.     Illustrated,  3000  words. 

33.  New  Type  of  Steam  Shovel.     Engineering  Record,   May  12,   1914. 
Illustrated,  400  words. 

34.  Operation  Analysis  of  New  Machines  Which  Cheapen  the  Moving  of 
Earth  on  Road  Work.     Engineering  Record,  July  31,   1915.     Illustrated, 
3000  words. 

35.  Performance  and   Power   Consumption  of  a   2^-  cu.   yd.    Electric 
Shovel.     Engineering  News,  January  23,  1913.     1000  words. 

36.  Profit  or  Loss  with  the  Steam  Shovel.     Engineering  Record,  March  14, 
1914.     1800  words. 

37.  A  Railway  Steam  Shovel  of  New  Design.     Engineering  News,  August 
4,  1904.     Illustrated,   2800  words. 

38.  Record  of  Steam-shovel  Work,  Ann  Arbor  Railroad,  H.  E.  RIGGS. 
Engineering  News,  July  23,  1896.     800  words. 

39.  Roller  Makes  Dipper-Latch  on  Steam  Work  Easily.     Engineering 
Record,  February  19,  1916.     Illustrated,  250  words. 

40.  76-Ton    Steam    Shovel.     Engineering,     June    5,   1914.     Illustrated, 
2500  words. 


POWER  SHOVELS  69 

41.  60-Ton   Bucyrus  Steam  Shovel.     Iron   Trade  Review,    February  6, 
1896.     Illustrated,  500  words. 

42.  Some  Records  of  Steam  Shovel  Ditch  Excavation.     Engineering  & 
Contracting,  February  26,  1913.     2500  words. 

43.  A    Steam-shovel     Attachment    for    Derricks.     Engineering    News, 
September  28,  1911.     Illustrated,   1000  words. 

44.  Steam  Shovel  Digs  48- Inch  Pipe  Trench  in  Busy  Street.     Engineering 
Record,  May  29,  1915.     Illustrated,    1000  words. 

45.  Steam  Shovel  Operation,   C.    M.    HAIGHT.     Engineering  &  Mining 
Journal,  February  14,  1914.     2200  words. 

46.  The  Steam  Shovel  in  Mining,  A.  W.  ROBINSON.     Proceedings  of  the 
Lake  Superior  Mining  Institute,  August,  1895.     3800  words. 

47.  A  Steam  Shovel  of  Novel  Design.     Engineering  News,  December  17, 
1903.     Illustrated,   1000  words. 

48.  Steam  Shovels  and  Steam  Shovel  Work  in   Railway  Construction. 
Engineering  News,  April  11,  1907.     2000  words. 

49.  Steam  Shovels  in  Mines,  GEORGE  E.  COBB.     British  Columbia  Mining 
Record,  December,  1903.     Illustrated,   1500  words. 

50.  Steam  Shovels  for  Trench  Excavation.     Engineering  News,  November 
7,  1901.     Illustrated,    1400  words. 

51.  Steam   Shovel   Work  at    Ashokan    Reservoir.     Engineering   Record, 
October  3,  1914.     Illustrated,   2000  words. 

52.  The  Thew  Steam  Shovel.     Railway  and  Engineering  Review,  March 
19,1898.     Illustrated,   1100  words. 

53.  The    Thew   Steam    Shovel;    Cleveland,    Lorain   and    Wheeling   Ry. 
Engineering  News,  April  11,  1911.     Illustrated,   900  words. 

54.  Unit  Costs  of  Steam  Shovel  Work  in  Cuba.     Engineering  &  Contract- 
ing, October  6,  1915.     3000  words. 

55.  Use  of  Electrically  Operated  Shovels  for  Building  Foundation  Exca- 
vation in  Boston.     Engineering  it   Contracting,  January  22,   1913.     Illus- 
trated,   1000  words. 


PART  II 
DREDGES 

Introductory. — The  power  shovel  is  not  well  adapted  to  earth- 
work operations  in  wet  or  soft  soils  on  account  of  the  concentra- 
tion of  the  heavy  weight  of  the  machine  and  loaded  dipper 
over  a  long,  narrow  area.  The  crane  of  the  power  shovel  is  short 
and  of  heavy  construction,  and  exerts  a  great  pressure  over  a 
small  area  of  base.  Hence,  with  the  demand  for  an  excavator 
with  a  long  boom  for  the  removal  of  the  excavated  material  to 
spoil  banks  adjacent  to  the  excavation,  and  also  for  a  wide  base 
over  which  to  distribute  the  load  as  a  small  unit  pressure  over  the 
soft  soil,  the  dredge  or  dredging  machine  was  devised. 

Dredges  may  be  divided  into  two  general  classes;  dry-land 
excavators  and  floating  excavators.  The  various  types  of  dry- 
land excavators  will -be  discussed  in  Chapters  VII  to  XI  inclusive 
and  the  floating  excavators  in  Chapters  XII  to  XV,  inclusive. 


71 


CHAPTER  VII 
SCRAPER  EXCAVATORS 

52.  Classification. — Dry-land     excavators     are    those    types 
which  move  over  and  operate  from  the  surface  of    the    land. 
They  may  be  classified  as  to  their  construction,  method  of  op- 
eration and  use  as  follows:  scraper  excavators,  templet  excava- 
tors,   trench   excavators,    and    cableways.     Scraper   excavators 
will  be  discussed  in  this  chapter  and  the  other  three  classes 
in  succeeding  chapters. 

53.  General  Description. — Scraper  excavators  may  be  sub- 
divided  into   two    classes,  as   to   their    method    of   operation; 
the  stationary  machine  with  pivoted  boom,  and  the  revolving 
dredge. 

A— STATIONARY    SCRAPER    EXCAVATOR 

54.  Varieties. — The  stationary  scraper  excavator  has  developed 
during  the  last  30  years  through  a  series  of  types ;  the  drag  boat 
dredge,  the  excavator  with  two  booms,  the  light  scraper  bucket 
excavator  and  the  walking  scoop  dredge.    'The  drag  boat  ex- 
cavator is  the  application  of  a  narrow  and  deep  hull,   which 
may  be  drawn  along  the  excavated  ditch  by  means  of  cables  an- 
chored ahead  of  the  boat.     As  this  type  of  machine  is  very  lim- 
ited in  its  scope,  rarely  used  at  the  present  time  and  properly,  a 
dipper  dredge,  no  further  description  will  be  given  of  it  here. 

55.  Traction  Excavator  with  Two  Booms. — An  early  type  of 
scraper  dredge  comprised  a  framework  which  carried  the  boiler, 
engines,  coal  bunkers,  A-frame,  booms,  dipper  or  scraper,  etc. 
This  machine  moves  along  ahead  of  the  excavation  on  rollers. 
A  machine  of  this  type,  mounted  on  caterpillar  tractors,  has 
recently  been  used  in  the  Middle  West  for  the  excavation  of 
drainage  ditches.     See  Fig.  34. 

The  principal  feature  of  this  excavator  is  the  use  of  two  booms, 
set  a  distance  apart,  depending  on  the  width  of  the  ditch  to  be 
excavated.  The  booms  swing  from  the  center  of  the  ditch  to 

72 


SCRAPER  EXCAVATORS  73 

each  side.  The  buckets  are  fastened  to  arms  which  slide  along 
the  booms.  Each  bucket  is  filled  by  lowering  the  point  of  the 
boom  and  moving  the  bucket  through  the  earth  toward  the 
machine.  The  bucket  is  emptied  by  raising  the  point  of  the  boom 
and  swinging  to  the  side  of  the  ditch.  One  bucket  is  filled  while 
the  other  is  dumped.  This  feature  adds  greatly  to  the  capacity 
of  the  machine.  Equipped  with  42-ft.  booms,  a  two-boom  ex- 
cavator has  averaged  100  cu.  yd.  per  hour  in  the  construction  of 
a  channel  with  a  25-ft.  bottom,  a  48-ft.  top  and  an  average 


FIG.  34. — Traction  excavator  with  two  booms. 

depth  of  12  feet.  This  type  of  machine  makes  a  uniform  -cross- 
section  with  smooth  side  slopes  and  a  fairly  true  grade.  On 
account  of  the  excessive  weight  and  cost  of  transportation  of 
this  type  of  excavator,  the  lighter  and  more  portable  types  have 
come  into  more  general  use  at  the  present  time  (1918). 

56.  Small  Traction  Ditcher.— About  8  years  ago  (1910), 
a  small,  portable,  dry-land  machine  was  devised  for  the  excava- 
tion of  small  ditches.  This  machine  is  shown  in  Fig.  35. 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  illustration,  the  machine  consists  of  a 
platform,  which  moves  on  two  sets  of  caterpillar  tractors  and 
carries  the  machinery,  A-frame,  boom  and  dipper.  The  whole 


74      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

framework  is  constructed  of  steel.  The  engines  of  the  regular, 
horizontal,  friction-drum  type  are  operated  by  a  25-  h.p.  gasoline 
engine,  which  consumes  about  2  gal.  of  gasoline  per  hour. 
The  boom  is  made  in  two  sections;  the  main  section  and  the 
movable  section,  which  is  hinged  to  the  main  section  near  the 
lower  end.  The  scraper  bucket  is  fastened  to  a  steel  frame  which 
is  hinged  to  the  movable  section  of  the  boom.  In  loading,  the 
bucket  is  drawn  down  and  toward  the  machine  and  when  filled 
the  movable  and  lower  section  of  the  boom  is  raised  and  hooked 
to  the  upper  section.  Then  the  whole  boom  is  swung  to  one  side 


FIG.  35. — Gopher  dry-land  traction  ditcher.     (Courtesy  of  Dix  Machine  Co.) 

and  the  dipper  inverted  and  dumped.  This  machine  operates 
a  24-yd.  dipper  on  a  20-ft.  boom.  One  man  is  required  to  operate 
the  machine.  Its  weight  is  about  12  tons,  but  on  account  of  the 
distribution  of  the  load  over  a  large  area  of  the  surface  by  the 
"caterpillar  tractors,  the  machine  may  be  used  on  soft  soil. 

57.  Small  Scraper-bucket  Excavator. — Recently,  the  demand 
for  a  machine  that  can  economically  construct  the  smaller  sized 
channels  of  drainage  and  irrigation  systems  of  the  Middle  West 
and  South  has  led  to  the  production  of  several  light,  portable 
and  inexpensive  machines.  A  well-known  type  is  shown  in  Fig. 
36  and  will  be  described  in  the  following  section. 

The  machine  consists  of  a  steel  framework,  supported  on  two 
trucks,  each  of  which  consists  of  a  heavy  steel  axle  and  two 


SCRAPER  EXCAVATORS 


75 


steel  wheels,  5  ft.  in  diameter  and  2  ft.  wide.     The  frame  supports 
a  platform  which  carries  the  operating  equipment. 

Near  the  front  end  of  the  platform  are  placed  the  operating 
drums  and  gears  which  are  belt  connected  to  an  internal  combus- 


FIG.  36. — Light  scraper  excavator.     (Courtesy  of  Economy  Excavator  Co.) 

tion  engine  mounted  near  the  rear  end.  The  hoisting  and  drag- 
line drums  are  controlled  by  friction  clutches  operated  by  levers. 
The  internal  combustion  engine  is  generally  used  on  these  small, 
portable  machines  on  account  of  their  compactness,  cleanliness 
and  ease  and  economy  of  operation.  A  machine  equipped  with 
a  %-yd.  bucket  and  a  50-ft.  boom  will  require  a  40-h.p.  4-cycle 


76       EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

gasoline  engine  which  will  run  on  a  consumption  of  from  20  to 
25  gal.  of  gasoline  per  10-hr,  day.  The  engine  should  be 
provided  with  forced-oil  feeder,  gear-driven  magneto,  carbureter, 
throttle,  governor,  large  oil  tank,  etc. 

The  excavating  equipment  consists  of  the  boom  and  bucket 
or  scoop.  The  boom  is  generally  made  adjustable  or  extensible 
and  is  formed  of  steel  channels,  latticed  and  braced  with  truss 
rods.  The  lower  end  of  the  boom  rests  in  a  universal  joint  at 
the  front  end  of  the  platform  while  the  upper  end  is  supported 
from  the  A-frame  by  cables  and  carries  the  sheave  over  which 
the  hoisting  cable  passes.  The  bucket  is  a  steel  scoop  provided 
with  manganese  or  tool-steel  teeth. 

One  man  is  required  to  operate  the  machine  and  one  man  to 
handle  the  track  in  soft  soil.  The  operator  controls  the  operation 
of  the  excavator  by  a  set  of  levers.  The  bucket  is  lowered  to  the 
surface  by  releasing  the  hoisting  line.  Then  the  drag  line  is 
pulled  in  and  this  draws  the  bucket  toward  the  machine,  scoop- 
ing up  a  thin  slice  of  earth  on  its  way.  When  the  bucket  is  near 
the  machine  and  filled,  the  boom  is  swung  to  one  side  until 
the  bucket  is  over  the  spoil  bank,  when  it  is  inverted  and 
dumped. 

The  machine  can  be  moved  ahead  without  interrupting  its 
operations  by  means  of  a  cable  attached  to  a  "  dead  man. "  The 
excavator  weighs  about  12  tons  and  costs  about  $5000. 

58.  Walking  Scoop  Dredge. — The  walking  dredge  is  rather 
a  novelty  in  the  field  of  excavating  machinery  and  derives  its 
name  from  its  ability  to  move  over  the  ground  under  its  own  power 
and  to  turn  short  angles  or  curves  without  sliding  or  skidding. 
The  walking  scoop  dredge  was  first  used  about  1905  and  is  similar 
in  general  construction  and  operation  to  the  floating  dipper 
dredge.  Another  type,  placed  on  the  market  in  1914,  is  an  adap- 
tation of  the  walking  principle  to  the  drag-line  excavator  and  will 
be  discussed  under  Revolving  Excavator. 

The  walking  dredge  consists  of  a  wooden  hull,  constructed 
of  heavy  timbers,  and  braced  along  the  sides  by  large,  overhead, 
wooden  trusses.  The  hull  is  made  of  sufficient  width  to  straddle 
the  ditch  as  it  is  being  excavated.  On  the  front  of  the  hull  is 
placed  the  A-frame,  which  generally  is  composed  of  two  heavy 
timbers  bolted  to  the  sides  of  the  hull  at  their  lower  ends  with 
their  upper  ends  meeting  in  a  "head"  casting.  The  A-frame  is 
set  in  a  vertical  plane  and  braced  by  wire  cables,  which  extend 


SCRAPER  EXCAVATORS  77 

i. 

from  the  top  of  the  frame  to  the  rear  of  the  hull.     Figure  37  gives 
a  side  view  of  a  dredge  showing  truss  and  A-frame  in  detail. 

On  the  floor  of  the  hull  is  placed  the  boiler  and  machinery. 
When  steam  power  is  used  the  equipment  is  very  similar  to  that 
used  on  a  floating-dipper  dredge;  the  boiler  being  placed  on  the 
rear  end  and  in  front  are  placed  the  hoisting  and  swinging  engines. 
On  account  of  the  expense  of  getting  coal,  where  the  work  is  a 
long  distance  from  a  railroad,  it  has  been  found  more  economical 
to  use  a  gasoline  engine  to  furnish  the  power.  Engines  from  16 
to  50  h.p.  are  used,  depending  on  the  capacity  of  the  machine, 
the  size  of  the  ditch  and  the  character  of  the  soil.  A  machine 


FIG.  37. — Side  view  of  walking  dredge. 

with  a  40-ft.  boom  and  a  1%-yd.  dipper  has  been  satisfactorily 
worked  with  a  50-h.p.  gasoline  engine. 

The  excavator  is  supported  at  each  of  its  corners  by  a  timber 
platform  constructed  like  a  stone  boat  and  called  a  foot.  Each 
foot  is  6  ft.  wide,  8  ft.  long  and  4  in.  thick  and  an  iron  bar 
fastened  to  the  bottom  near  the  front  edge  prevents  slipping. 
Each  pair  of  feet  is  joined  transversely  by  a  light  timber,  so  that 
both  will  move  conjointly  and  in  the  same  direction.  Each 
foot  is  pivoted  to  the  hull  and  connected  to  a  drum  by  a  chain, 
so  that  by  revolving  the  drum,  the  direction  of  the  feet  may  be 
changed  by  the  operator.  In  the  center  of  each  side  or  midway 
between  the  corner  feet,  is  a  center  foot,  similar  in  construction 
to  the  corner  feet  but  having  a  length  of  14  ft.  and  a  width  of 
6  feet.  On  the  under  side  of  each  center  foot,  a  6  X  6-in.  timber 


78       EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

is  fastened  transversely  to  prevent  slipping.  A  large  timber 
extends  from  the  top  of  each  center  foot,  between  each  pair 
of  trusses,  where  it  is  pivoted.  A  chain,  one  end  of  which 
is  fastened  to  the  side  timbers  of  the  hull,  passes  over  the  two 
pulleys  attached  to  the  frame  on  which  the  foot  support  is  pivoted, 
and  then  passes  along  the  hull  to  the  rear  corner  and  across  the 
back  end  to  a  drum  near  the  center  of  the  hull.  To  move  the 
machine  the  drum  is  revolved  and  the  winding  up  of  the  chain 
pulls  the  foot  support  gradually  to  a  vertical  position.  This 
raises  the  dredge  from  the  corner  feet  and  it  moves  ahead  about 


FIG.  38. — Corner  foot  of  walking  dredge. 

6  feet.  The  rear  chain  is  then  released  and  the  weight  is  taken 
off  of  the  center  foot,  which  is  pulled  ahead  by  a  chain  attached 
to  a  drum,  located  near  the  center  of  the  front  part  of  the  hull. 
Figure  38  shows  a  detail  view  of  a  corner  foot. 

The  boom  is  made  *up  of  two  parts,  the  upper  part  is  supported 
at  its  lower  end  on  a  turntable  similar  to  those  used  on  a 
floating-dipper  dredge.  The  upper  end  is  supported  by  a  cable 
from  the  peak  of  the  A-frame.  The  lower  part  of  the  boom  is 
pivoted  at  one  end  to  the  lower  end  of  the  upper  section  and  on 
its  outer  end  is  pivoted  an  iron-trussed  framework  shaped  like 
a  nvalking  beam.  A  chain  or  wire  cable  passes  from  the  upper. 


SCRAPER  EXCAVATORS  79 

end  of  this  frame  to  a  drum  on  the  hull.  By  the  winding  up 
of  this  chain  or  cable,  the  top  of  the  frame  may  be  pulled  back. 
To  the  lower  end  of  the  frame  is  fastened  the  dipper  which  is 
shaped  like  the  pan  of  a  slip  scraper.  A  chain  or  cable  is  also 
fastened  to  the  frame  at  the  back  of  the  scoop.  This  line  passes 
over  pulleys  in  the  outer  ends  of  the  booms  and  then  to  a  drum 
on  the  hull.  By  the  winding  up  of  this  line  the  scoop  is  pulled 
back  and  tilted  to  a  vertical  position.  Figure  39  will  clearly  show 
the  details  of  the  boom  and  scoop.  To  excavate,  the  lower  sec- 


Fio.  39. — Dipper  and  dipper  arm  of  walking  dredge. 

tion  of  the  boom  is  lowered  until  the  tip  of  the  scoop  is  at  the 
required  level ;  the  line  attached  to  the  upper  end  of  the  walking 
beam  is  then  wound  up  and  the  scoop  is  thus  forced  forward 
into  the  earth.  After  the  scoop  is  filled  the  lower  section  of  the 
boom  is  raised  and  at  the  same  time  swung  to  one  side  until 
the  scoop  is  over  the  spoil  bank,  where  the  upper  line  is  released 
and  the  lower  line  is  pulled  in  until  the  scoop  is  drawn  back  to  the 
boom  and  the  contents  of  the  scoop  are  dumped. 

The  machine  can  move  ahead,  across  country  at  the  rate 
of    1    mile  in  about   10  hours.     It  can  make  a  quarter  turn 


80       EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

in  about  50  feet.  On  very  soft  swampy  land  the  machine  can 
be  operated  by  placing  a  large  pontoon  under  the  hull  to  float 
the  machine  and  support  the  larger  part  of  its  weight.  It  may 
be  operated  as  a  rear  or  head-on  excavator.  In  the  first  case, 
the  machine  starts  at  the  outlet  and  backs  up  away  from  the  ex- 
cavation like  a  drag-line  excavator,  while  in  the  lattei  case,  the 
machine  starts  at  the  upper  end  of  the  ditch  and  straddles  it 
as  it  excavates. 

B— REVOLVING  EXCAVATOR 

59.  Drag-line  Excavator. — The  best  known  and  most  gener- 
ally used  type  of  dry-land  machine,  is  the  revolving  type  of 


FIG.  40. — Caterpillar  tractor  of  gopher  ditcher. 

scraper-bucket    excavator.     This    class    of    machine    may    be 
mounted  in  one  of  three  different  ways  as  follows : 

1.  On  skids  and  rollers,  when  the  machine  travels  over  the 
planks  laid  on  the  surface.     The  machine  moves  ahead  by  pull- 
ing up  to  its  bucket,  which  acts  as  an  anchor. 

2.  On  trucks,  when  the  machine  is  mounted  on  small  steel, 
four-wheel  trucks.     The  machine  moves  ahead  as  in  the  case  of 
skids  and  Boilers. 

3.  On  caterpillar  tractors,    when    the   machine  is  supported 
on  four  moving  plarforms  which  are  especially  adapted  for  soft 
soil  condition  and  allow  the  machine  to  move  ahead  without 
the  use  of  planking,  tracks,  etc.     See  Fig.  40. 

The  essential  parts  of  a  scraper-bucket  excavator  are  the  sub- 
structure, which  consists  of  the  upper  and  lower  platforms  and 
turntable,  the  power  equipment,  the  hoisting  engines,  the  swing- 


SCRAPER  EXCAVATORS 


81 


82       EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

ing  engines,  A-frame,  boom  and  bucket.  The  essential  parts 
and  their  system  of  coordination  and  method  of  operation  are 
practically  the  same  in  all  the  various  makes  of  the  scraper- 
bucket  or  drag-line  excavator.  The  only  differences  are  in  the 
details  of  construction,  such  as  will  be  noted  hereafter  in  the  ma- 
chinery and  buckets.  The  principal  parts  of  a  drag-line  excava- 
tor are  shown  in  Fig.  41. 

The  sub-structure  consists  of  a  lower  platform,  an  intermediate 
turntable  and  an  upper  platform.  The  lower  frame  consists 
of  a  rectangular-shaped  open  box,  whose  members  are  steel 
channels  or  I-beams.  The  frame  is  mounted  eithei  on  wooden 
rollers,  double-flanged  truck  wheels  or  four-wheeled  compen- 


FIG.  42. — Lower  frame  of  drag-line  excavator.     (Courtesy  of  Lidg erwood  Mfg.  Co.) 

sating  trucks.  Figure  42  shows  a  typical  make  of  lower  frame 
mounted  on  the  four-wheeled  trucks. 

Upon  the  upper  suface  of  the  lower  platform  is  fastened  the 
track  upon  which  runs  the  swinging  circle.  In  the  center  of 
the  upper  surface  of  the  lower  frame  is  fastened  the  female  section 
of  the  central  pivot. 

The  turntable  consists  of  a  swinging  circle,  which  is  a  steel 
frame  supporting  several  flanged  wheels.  See  Fig.  42.  In 
one  make  of  excavator  the  swinging  circle  consists  of  several  in- 
dependent trucks  fastened  to  the  bottom  surface  of  the  upper 
frame,  while  in  other  makes  the  circle  is  composed  of  a  larger 
number  of  smaller  wheels  revolving  between  two  tracks. 


SCRAPER  EXCA  VA  TORS  83 

The  upper  framework  or  platform  is  built  of  steel  channels 
and  I-beams  of  lighter  section  than  those  in  the  lower  frame. 
The  various  members  are  made  in  sections,  which  can  be  easily 
transported  and  readily  assembled.  Upon  the  lower  surface  of 
this  frame  is  fastened  the  male  section  of  the  central  pivot. 

The  power  equipment  may  be  made  up  upon  the  basis  of  using 
steam,  gasoline  or  electricity  as  the  source  of  power. 

BOILER 

The  steam  equipment  is  the  one  generally  used  and  will  be 
described  first.  It  consists  of  a  boiler,  steam  pump,  injector, 
water  tank  and  piping.  The  style  of  boiler  used  depends  on  the 
power  required.  A  vertical  tube  or  brick-set  boiler  cannot  be 
used.  The  gross  horse  power  required  for  the  operation  of  the 
excavator  should  be  estimated  and  25  per  cent,  added  to  this 
amount  to  determine  the  rated  horse  power  of  the  boiler,  which 
should  be  used. 

It  is  often  necessary  where  an  excavator  is  at  work  in  regions 
where  the  water  supply  is  highly  impregnated  with  salts,  to 
purify  the  water  before  it  is  used  in  the  boiler.  This  is  best 
accomplished  by  running  the  water  from  the  supply  tank  into  a 
Feed  Water  Heater,  where  escape  steam  from  the  boiler  is  used 
to  heat  the  water  to  the  boiling  point  and  this  water  after  being 
freed  of  its  salts  and  other  impurities  held  in  solution,  is  pumped 
into  the  boiler.  This  purification  of  the  feed  water  prevents  the 
incrustation  of  the  boiler  and  thus  greatly  increases  its  efficiency. 
The  writer  has  found  that  the  use  of  "Boiler  Compounds"  or 
"Purgers"  is  at  best  an  unsatisfactory  and  troublesome  method 
of  removing  scale  from  boiler  tubes.  The  only  safe  and  reliable 
method  is  to  remove  the  cause  of  incrustation  before  the  water 
is  admitted  into  the  boiler.  This  will  save  time  and  expense  in 
cleaning  the  boiler  and  also  save  coal.  With  a  100-h.p.  boiler  a 
Feed  Water  Heater  having  a  height  of  6  ft.  5  in.  and  a  diameter  of 
24  in.  would  be  of  ample  capacity.  These  dimensions  will  vary, 
however,  with  the  type  of  heater  used. 

This  surplus  power  is  often  needed  under  exceptional  conditions 
such  as  excavation  of  very  stiff  or  heavy  soil,  foaming  of  water  in 
boiler  tubes,  excavation  of  frozen  soil,  use  of  poor-grade  fuel, 
adverse  atmospheric  conditions,  etc.  On  account  of  the  high 
cost  of  fuel  and  the  poor  quality  of  water  generally  obtainable 
on  drainage  contracts,  that  type  of  boiler  should  be  used  that 
will  give  the  greatest  efficiency  with  the  smallest  fuel  consumption. 


84       EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


On  the  smaller  size  machines,  a  vertical  boiler  is  generally  used. 
Figure  43  shows  the  boiler  and  hoisting  engine  used  on  a  well- 


FIG.  43. — Boiler    and    hoisting    engine    of    drag-line    excavator.     (Courtesy  of 
Monighan  Machine  Co.) 


FIG.  44. — Locomotive  type  of  boiler.     (Courtesy  of  Monighan  Machine  Co.) 

known  make  of  excavator.  On  the  larger  size  machines,  a  re- 
turn-tube fire  box  or  locomotive  type  of  boiler  is  generally  used, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  44. 


SCRAPER  EXCA  VA  TORS  85 


A  steam  pump  of  the  standard  duplex  type  is  generally  con- 
nected to  the  boiler  direct  or  to  a  water  tank,  which  supplies  the 
boiler  by  an  injector. 

MAIN  ENGINE 

The  hoisting  engines,  which  are  generally  termed  the  main 
engines  of  an  excavator,  are  generally  horizontal,  double-cylinder, 
friction  drum  type  and  self-contained  on  a  single  cast-iron  or 
steel  bed  plate.  The  engine  is  always  set  directly  in  front  of  the 
boiler,  with  a  narrow  passageway  between.  There  is  probably 
no  severer  test  to  which  machinery  can  be  put  than  that  of  dredg- 
ing. The  continued  application  for  long  periods  of  time  of  the 
shocks  of  throwing  on  and  off  the  varying  load  is  a  very  trying 
test  of  an  engine's  strength  and  durability.  It  is  especially 
necessary  that  all  gears  be  of  steel,  the  shafts  vc.y  heavy,  the 
shaft  and  wrist  pins  large,  and  the  front  drum  of  extra  thickness 
and  well  braced  inside.  The  writer  has  known  of  cases  where 
the  continual  breaking  of  the  various  parts  of  an  engine  has 
caused  serious  delays  and  great  loss  of  time  and  money  to  the 
contractor.  The  engine  of  some  makes  of  excavator  has  three 
drums;  the  rear  drum  is  used  for  handling  the  boom  fall  line,  the 
center  drum  is  for  the  hoisting  line  and  the  front  drum  for  the 
drag  line.  See  Fig.  43.  In  other  makes  of  excavator,  the 
engine  has  simply  the  hoisting  and  drag-line  drums;  the  outer 
end  of  the  boom  being  raised  and  lowered  by  a  small  winch,  which 
is  operated  independently  of  the  main  engine.  See  Fig.  48. 
Some  makes  of  engine  provide  double-band  outside  friction 
clutches  actuated  by  auxiliary  steam  rams,  which  give  a  good 
control  over  the  operation  of  the  drums.  This  is  necessary 
in  the  case  of  the  drag-line  and  hoisting  drums. 

SWINGING    ENGINE 

The  mechanism  for  swinging  the  upper  platform,  machinery 
and  boom,  and  for  propelling  the  excavator  over  the  ground  sur- 
face is  sometimes  contained  in  the  main  engine.  Some  manufac- 
turers, however,  provide  a  sep'arate  swinging  engine,  self-contained 
on  its  own  base  plate.  This  engine  is  of  the  steam  reverse  type 
and  drives  through  a  chain  of  gears,  a  pinion  which  operates  the 
large  circular  rack  on  the  lower  frame.  The  swinging  engine  used 


86       EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

on  a  well-known  make  of  drag-line  excavator  is  shown  in  Fig. 
45.  The  swinging  engine  should  be  provided  with  some  device 
for  keeping  the  swinging  lines  tight.  To  insure  smoothness  of 
operation,  an  auxiliary  steam  cylinder  should  be  connected  to 
the  tumbling  shaft.  The  cylinder  and  throttle  are  generally 
operated  by  a  singta  lever. 


FIG.  45. — Swinging    engine    of    drag-line    excavator. 

Machine  Co.) 


(Courtesy   of   Monighan 


In  Minnesota  and  South  Dakota  in  recent  years  (1907-18), 
gasoline  and  kerosene  engines  have  been  used  for  the  driving  of 
the  machinery  of  drag-line  excavators.  The  engine  is  mounted 
on  a  base  just  in  the  rear  of  the  engine  to  which  it  is  belt  connected. 
The  drums  of  the  engine  are  provided  with  outside  band  friction 
clutches,  which  are  controlled  by  pneumatic  thrust  cylinders. 
The  swinging  meclianism  is  mounted  on  the  same  base  and  to  one 


SCRAPER  EXCAVATORS  87 

side  of  the  hoisting  and  drag-line  drums.  Double-cone  friction 
clutches  are  used  to  operate  the  swinging  drums. 

The  gasoline  engine  should  have  a  capacity  of  40  to  50  h.p. 
for  an  excavator  with  a  1%-cu.  yd.  to  a  2>^-cu.  yd.  bucket.  As 
is  well  known,  the  internal  combustion  engine  should  be  mounted 
on  a  stable  and  rigid  base  for  efficient  and  uniform  operation.  On 
the  upper  platform  of  a  drag-line  excavator,  the  engine  is  sub- 
jected to  severe  shocks  and  vibration  and  such  parts  as  the  crank, 
crank  pin,  main  shaft,  governor,  etc.,  must  be  made  of  extra 
heavy  section  and  weight  to  resist  the  unusually  severe  strains. 
The  writer  has  seen  the  Otto  and  Stickney  engines  used  on  2J£- 
and  2J^-yd.  bucket  excavators,  and  even  with  these  heavily 
built  engines,  the  breaks  have  been  numerous.  It  is  especially 
necessary  that  a  liberal  excess  of  power  be  used  and  experience 
has  proven  the  wisdom  of  using  not  less  than  50  per  cent,  horse 
power  in  excess  of  that  estimated. 

A  small  air  compressor  actuated  by  a  belt  connection  with  the 
engine,  furnishes  compressed  air  to  a  receiving  tank.  The  air 
is  then  supplied  to  the  thrust  cylinders,  which  control  the  band 
friction  clutches  on  the  drums.  A  water  tank  for  supplying 
water  to  cool  the  cylinder  of  the  engine  and  a  gasoline  supply  tank 
are  also  placed  on  the  upper  platform  near  the  engine.  The 
gasoline  engine  is  much  more  economical  to  operate  than  a  steam 
equipment  in  localities  where  coal  is  expensive  and  requires 
long  and  costly  hauling  and  also  where  water  is  scarce  and  poor 
in  quality. 

Where  electric  power  is  available  and  reasonable  in  cost,  it  is 
advisable  to  use  electric  motors,  in  place  of  the  steam-boiler 
equipment.  Either  alternating  or  direct  current  may  be  used. 
The  motors  may  be  gear  or  belt  connected  to  the  shafts  of  the 
hoisting  and  swinging  engines.  The  drums  of  these  engines  are 
controlled  by  outside  band  friction  clutches,  which  are  actuated 
by  pneumatic  thrust  cylinders.  A  small  belt-connected  air 
compressor  with  receiving  tank  supplies  the  compressed  air  for 
the  rams.  On  a  120-ton  machine  equipped  with  a  2^-yd.  dipper, 
a  115-h.p.,  60-cycle,  3-phase  motor  for  the  swinging  engine  are 
suitable  for  the  power  equipment.  The  cost  of  current  will 
vary  from  J^  to  1  cent  per  cubic  yard  of  excavated  material 
depending  on  the  market  price. 

The  reliability,  cleanliness,  and  economy  of  this  form  of  power 
are  strong  factors  in  favor  of  its  use.  It  has  been  used  to  a  consid- 


88       EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

erable  extent  in  recent  years  in  reclamation  work  in  the  arid 
regions  of  the  West,  where  coal  and  water  are  scarce  and  expen- 
sive, and  electric  power  is  available  from  local  transmission  lines 
of  water-power  plants. 

The  hoisting,  dragging  and  swinging  mechanism  to  be  used 
in  connection  with  gasoline  and  electric  power  is  shown  in  Fig.  46. 

The  assembled  machinery  on  a  drag-line  excavator  in  opera- 
tion is  shown  in  Fig.  48,  which  is  a  view  of  the  interior  of  the 
engine  house. 


FIG.  46. — Mechanism  for  drag-line  excavator  operated  by  gasoline  or  electric 
power.     (Courtesy  of  Monighan  Machine  Co.) 


BOOM 

The  boom  or  crane  is  composed  of  a  structural  steel  framework, 
generally  two  channels  braced  together  for  the  smaller  excavators 
and  two  latticed  girders  braced  together  for  the  larger  excavators. 
See  Fig.  47.  The  lower  ends  of  the  main  members,  channels, 
or  latticed  girders,  are  spread  apart  at  the  lower  end  and  hinged 
to  the  outer  corners  of  the  front  side  of  the  upper  platform.  The 
upper  ends  of  the  main  members  are  joined  together  so  as  to  form 
a  boxing  wherein  one  or  more  sheaves  are  placed.  The  main 
members  are  cross-braced  with  small  lateral  trusses  so  designed 
as  to  resist  the  severe  lateral  strains  occasioned  by  the  sudden 
starting  and  stopping  of  the  swinging  of  the  boom. 


SCRAPER  EXCAVATORS 


A-FRAME 


89 


The  top  of  the  boom  is  connected  by  cables  with  the  top  of  a 
vertical  frame  called  an  "A"-frame.  This  frame  is  located- 
near  the  front  end  of  the  main  engine  and  the  lower  ends  are 
bolted  to  the  sides  of  the  upper  platform,  while  the  upper  ends 
are  framed  together  to  form  a  boxing  for  a  sheave.  The  top  of 
the  "A"-frame  is  guyed  back  to  the  two  rear  corners  of  the 
upper  platform.  The  top  of  the  boom  may  be  raised  or  lowered 
by  means  of  a  wire  cable,  which  passes  from  the  end  of  the  boom 
over  the  sheave  at  the  top  of  the  "  A  "-frame  and  thence  down  to 
a  winch  on  the  floor  of  the  house.  See  Figs.  41  and  48. 


FIG.  47. — Drag-line  excavator  with  steel  framed  boom. 
BUCKET 

The  bucket  may  be  one  of  three  types;  the  scraper  bucket,  the 
clam-shell  bucket  and  the  orange-peel  bucket.  The  last  two 
typeL  are  only  used  for  special  work  such  as  rock  excavation 
(rock  previously  loosened  by  blasting),  narrow  trench  or  ditch 
excavation,  the  removal  of  sand  and  silt  from  channels,  etc.  The 
dimensions,  weights  and  cost  of  these  two  types  are  given  in  Figs. 
24  and  25. 

The  scraper  bucket  is  the  type  in  general  use  with  a  drag-line 
excavator,  and  as  the  name  of  the  machine  implies,  the  bucket 
is  filled  by  being  dragged  toward  the  machine  by  a  line  or  cable. 
There  are  several  makes  or  styles  of  these  scraper  buckets,  which 


90       EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


SCRAPER  EXCAVATORS 


91 


differ  only  in  their  details  of  construction.     A  few  of  these  types 
are  described  in  the  following  paragraphs. 

The  Page  bucket  is  shown  in  Fig.  49  and  is  operated  as 
follows :  the  digging  or  drag  line  attached  to  the  bail  of  the  bucket- 
is  drawn  toward  the  machine  by  operation  of  the  front  drum. 
The  initial  pull  on  the  drag  line  gives  the  bucket  the  correct 
digging  position,  and  the  chisel  edge  lip  enters  the  earth  at  the 
proper  angle.  By  a  slight  manipulation  of  the  tension  on  the 
hoisting  line,  the  proper  angle  is  maintained  for  either  a  thin  cut, 
as  in  hard  digging,  or  for  a  heavy  cut  to  fill  the  bucket  quickly, 


FIG.  49. — "Page"  scraper  bucket.     (Courtesy  of  Lidgerwood  Mfg.  Co.) 

as  in  soft  digging.  When  the  bucket  is  filled,  the  foot-brake 
of  the  front  drum  is  applied,  the  pneumatic  control  reversed,  and 
the  bucket  hoisted  by  the  application  of  the  friction  of  the  rear 
drum  of  the  main  engine,  the  operator  meanwhile  paying  out  the 
drag  line.  The  front  end  of  the  bucket  is  held  up  by  means  of 
tension  on  the  dumping  line,  which  is  a  branch  of  the  drag  line. 
The  power  is  then  applied  to  the  swinging  engine,  the  machine  is 
swung  to  the  dumping  place,  the  tension  is  released  and  the 
bucket  automatically  dumps  by  gravity.  The  tension  being 
applied  or  released  by  pressure  on  the  drag-line  brake  lever, 
the  operation  of  dumping  is  always  under  complete  control. 


92       EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

The  Brownhoist  Shnable  Drag-line  Bucket  is  a  back  dumping 
bucket  and  consists  of  a  shell,  a  pulling  bail  and  a  combination 
hoisting  bail  and  back-gate.  See  Fig.  54.  The  pulling  bail 
is  connected  to  the  shell  (in  its  digging  position)  at  points  above 
the  center  of  gravity  and  also  is  connected  to  the  hoisting  bail 
and  back-gate  by  links  in  such  a  manner  that  tension  on  the  drag 
line  forces  the  gate  to  close.  The  bucket  is  operated  by  two 
single-part  lines,  the  drag  line  and  the  hoist  line.  The  bucket 
may  be  made  to  dig  at  any  desired  slope  by  carrying  the  tension 
on  the  hoist  line  while  it  is  being  paid  out. 


\ 


FIG.  50. — "Monighan"  two-line  drag  bucket.      (Courtesy  of  Monighan  Machine 

Co.) 

The  Martinson  bucket  or  generally  known  as  the  Monighan 
scraper  bucket  is  very  similar  to  the  Page  bucket  and  like  it  is 
a  two-line  appliance.  The  operation  of  the  machinery  for  dig- 
ging, swinging  and  dumping  is  the  same  as  described  above  for 
the  Page  bucket.  The  drag  line,  in  the  case  of  the  Page  bucket, 
is  fastened  to  the  top  of  the  front  end  of  the  bucket,  thence  passes 
up  over  a  small  sheave  in  the  upper  part  of  the  bail  and  thence 
out  to  a  connection  with  the  two  side  chains  and  from  here  to  the 
front  drum.  A  reference  to  Fig.  50  will  show  that  in  the  use 
of  the  Monighan  bucket,  the  bucket  is  held  horizontally  by  the 
lever  mechanism  which  is  connected  to  the  drag  line  by  a  cable. 
When  the  bucket  is  dropped  and  the  drag  line  released,  the  bucket 
assumes  a  vertical  position  and  dumps  by  gravity. 


SCRAPER  EXCAVATORS 


93 


The  Browning  scraper  bucket  has  two  hoisting  lines  besides 
the  drag  line;  one  attached  to  the  end  of  the  bail  and  the  other 
fastened  to  the  rear  of  the  bucket.  The  drag  is  fastened  to  a  bail, 
which  projects  in  front  of  the  bucket  and  which  may  be  set  at 
different  angles  to  the  bottom  of  the  bucket.  The  dimensions, 
weights  and  costs  of  the  various  sizes  are  given  in  Fig.  51. 


Capacity 
Cu.  Yd. 

Extreme 
length 

Extreme 
Height 

Extreme 
Width 

S  & 
SS 

a  u 
1& 

S* 

&& 
S  o 

Q  * 

Weight 

K 

7-0 

6-1 

4-4 

N 

N 

X 

1500  Ibs. 

1 

8-3 

7-0 

4-9 

,H 

« 

% 

2000  Ibs. 

IX 

10-3 

8-5 

5-0 

X 

X 

% 

2850  Ibs. 

2 

11-2 

9-8 

5-3 

X 

# 

1 

8800  Ibs. 

2H 

11-6 

10-9 

5-9 

% 

K 

IH 

4750  Ibs. 

3 

12-0 

12-0 

6-3 

K 

K 

IH 

.      5900  Ibs. 

SK 

FIG.  51. — Browning  scraper  buckets.      (Courtesy  of  Browning  Mfg.  Co.) 

The  Austin  scraper  bucket  is  a  two-line  excavator  similar 
to  the  Page  bucket.  The  distinctive  feature  of  this  bucket  is 
a  latch,  which  hooks  over  a  pin  on  the  front  end  and  maintains 
it  in  a  horizontal  position.  The  bucket  may  be  dumped  at  any 
position  by  releasing  the  latch  and  allowing  the  bucket  to  assume 
a  vertical  position  and  dump  the  contents. 


94       EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

The  Bucyrus  scraper  bucket  is  very  similar  to  the  Browning 
bucket  shown  in  Fig.  51.  The  distinctive  features  are  a  rigid 
bail  connection  for  the  drag  line  and  a  rounded  back.  By  vary- 
ing the  angle,  which  the  drag-line  bail  makes  with  the  bottom 
of  the  bucket,  a  downward  force  may  be  exerted  and  assist  in 
the  excavation  of  stiff  material.  The  rounded  back  is  of  advan- 
tage in  the  excavation  of  sticky  or  gumbo  soil,  as  the  material  will 
not  stick  to  the  bucket  and  the  material  as  it  is  excavated  is 


FIG.  52. — "Iverson"  bucket. 

rolled  up  and  decreases  the  resistance  to  the  loading  up  of  the 
bucket. 

A  novel  bucket  has  recently  been  devised  and  put  on  the  mar- 
ket by  M.  S.  Iverson  of  New  York.  The  improvements  claimed 
for  this  bucket  by  the  inventor  to  give  it  superiority  in  construc- 
tion and  operation  over  all  other  types  of  drag-line  buckets  are 
as  follows: 

The  elimination  of  the  tension  between  the  drag  line  and  the 
hoist  line,  while  the  bucket  is  being  hoisted  to  the  dumping  place. 
This  is  affected  by  the  use  of  a  latching  device  which  automati- 


SCRAPER  EXCA  VA  TORS  95 

cally  hooks  over  the  bail  of  the  bucket,  when  the  latter  is  pulled 
forward  by  the  drag  line.  Thus  the  bucket  may  be  hoisted  from 
any  position  in  relation  to  its  distance  from  the  end  of  the  boom. 
Figure  52  shows  the  bucket  being  hoisted  over  the  spoil  bank  by 
the  hoist  line  alone;  the  drag  line  being  slack. 

The  reduction  of  repairs  on  the  bucket,  due  to  the  design 
and  improved  methods  of  construction. 

The  reduction  of  weight  on  the  bucket  on  account  of  the  elimi- 
nation of  the  drag-line  strain. 

The  resulting  increase  in  size  of  the  bucket  on  account  of 
the  reduction  of  work  which  the  machine  is  subjected  to,  by  the 
use  of  the  tension  feature. 

The  following  quotation  from  a  letter  of  a  contractor,  who  used 
the  Iverson  bucket  in  excavation  work  connected  with  the  con- 
struction of  the  Fourth  Avenue  Subway,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  will 
give  the  results  of  several  months  actual  test  of  this  bucket. 

"The  bucket  possesses  two  features  which  will  figure  to  a  great  advan- 
tage against  any  other  drag-line  bucket,  the  most  important  feature 
that  of  doing  away  with  the  tension  between  the  drag  line  and  the  lift 
line  (since  the  bucket  is  a  locked  one)  and  the  second  feature  that  of 
preventing  the  compression  on  the  front  of  the  bucket,  thereby  doing 
away  with  a  lot  of  useless  reinforcement,  has  proven  to  be  of  such  a  great 
advantage  to  the  machine  operating  the  bucket  that  our  own  Browning 
crane  can  do  a  good  day's  work  with  65  Ib.  of  steam  with  this  new  bucket 
whereas  other  buckets  would  stall  in  the  bank  with  85  Ib.  and  would 
require  100  Ib.  of  steam  to  do  the  same  work." 

The  bucket  is  made  in  J£,  %  1,  1^,  2,  2J^  and  3  cu.  yd.  ca- 
pacities and  equipped  with  either  forged- or  manganese-steel  teeth. 

A  bucket  which  has  been  in  successful  operation  for  several 
years  on  the  Pacific  Coast  is  the  Weeks  bucket.  The  principles 
involved  in  its  construction  and  operation  can  be  understood 
by  a  reference  to  the  line  drawings  in  Fig.  53. 

Like  all  other  buckets  of  this  type,  it  is  operated  by  two 
lines,  a  drag  or  haul  line,  which  pulls  the  bucket  forward  and  a  re- 
turn line  to  draw  it  back.  The  body  of  the  shovel  or  bucket  con- 
sists of  a  pan,  open  at  the  top  and  front,  a  sloping  back  to  facilitate 
the  return  of  the  shovel  after  dumping  and  lugs  attached  to  the 
vertical  sides  for  use  in  dumping  the  load  forward.  To  the  front 
part  of  the  sides  of  the  pan  is  attached  a  rigid  upright  yoke  or 
mast,  which  contains  two  sheaves,  over  which  pass  the  chains, 
which,  when  properly  operated,  cause  the  shovel  to  dig  and  re- 


96       EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


lease.  A  bail,  which  consists  of  two  short  chains,  holds  a  sheave, 
around  which  passes  the  digging  chain,  one  end  of  which  is  fastened 
to  the  casing  of  the  sheave.  The  other  end  of  this  chain  is  at- 
tached to  a  lug  at  the  back  of  the  shovel  and  the  rehaul  or  return 


FIG.  53.- — "Weeks"  drag-line  bucket.     (Courtesy  of  Engineering-Contracting.) 

line  fastens  to  the  digging  chain  at  a  suitable  point  near  the  boom. 
The  bail  by  which  the  shovel  is  drawn  forward  may  be  flexible 
as  described  above  or  it  may  be  rigid.  The  latter  is  pre- 
ferred in  excavating  soft  material.  The  cutting  edge  is  generally 
curved  upward  to  assist  in  releasing  the  shovel  from  its  cut. 


SCRAPER  EXCAVATORS 


97 


The  shovel  is  operated  from  the  boom  of  a  drag-line  excavator 
or  a  simple  boom  of  a  derrick  or  tower  by  drawing  the  bucket 
back  and  forth  across  the  area  to  be  excavated  by  the  haul  line 
and  return  line.  To  excavate  with  the  shovel  the  haul  line  is 
made  taut,  the  return  line  is  tightened  slightly,  which  action, 
by  aid  of  the  sheaves,  draws  the  mast  and  haul  line  together  (see 
Fig.  53),  which  thus  tips  the  shovel  forward  on  its  cutting  edge, 
and  in  this  position  it  is 
drawn  forward  until  filled. 
The  return  line  is  then  slack- 
ened, causing  the  mast  and 
haul  lines  to  draw  apart,  after 
which  the  drawing  in  of  the 
haul  line  releases  the  shovel 
(now  filled)  and  owing  to 
the  slightly  upturned  cutting 
edge  the  shovel  rises  out  of 
the  material.  In  this  loaded 
condition,  the  shovel  is  drawn 
forward  to  the  point  where  it 
is  to  be  dumped.  The  latter 
action  is  caused  by  the  slack- 
ing of  the  tail  line,  which 
causes  the  shovel  to  take  a 
vertical  position,  allowing  its 
contents  to  fall  out  of  the 
front  end.  When  the  shovel 
is  operated  from  a  swinging 
boom,  the  shovel  is  raised 


to   the   side   for 


FIG.  54. — Shnable  drag-line  bucket. 
(Courtesy  of  Brown  Hoisting  Machinery 
Co.) 


and   swung 
dumping. 

The  shovel  is  constructed  of  heavy  steel  plate  and  equipped 
with  a  manganese  steel  cutting  edge,  and  cast  steel  back. 

The  shovels  are  constructed  in  the  following  sizes  and  weights : 


Size 


15  cu.  ft. 
22  cu.  ft. 
34  cu.  ft. 
42  cu.  ft. 


Weight 


1520  Ib. 
2120  Ib. 
3050  Ib. 
4100  Ib. 


98       EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

The  34  cu.  ft.  is  the  size  generally  used  and  is  usually  operated 
by  means  of  an  8)4  X  10-in.  double  drum  hoisting  engine,  re- 
quiring from  35  to  60  h. p.  depending  on  the  kind  of  material  to 
be  excavated. 

The  capacity  of  the  shovel  varies  from  350  to  500  cu.  yd.  per 
10-hr,  day.  Three  men  are  generally  required  in  an  ordinary 
crew,  one  to  operate  the  shovel,  one  to  operate  the  boiler,  and  a 
general  laborer. 

CABLES 

The  experience  of  most  contractors  (including  some  noted 
above),  in  the  use  of  drag-line  excavators,  is  that  the  principal 
source  of  expense  for  repairs  is  in  the  wearing  out  of  cables.  The 
drag-line  cable  especially  is  subject  to  great  wear  in  passing  over 
the  guide  sheaves  on  the  front  of  the  upper  platform.  These 
guide  sheaves  are  called  the  "fair  lead"  and  in  the  latest  form, 
consist  of  two  horizontal  sheaves  mounted  on  a  casting  on  which 
is  pivoted  a  swinging  frame,  carrying  two  vertical  sheaves.  This 
frame,  in  revolving,  will  take  the  direction  of  the  drag  line  and 
thus  maintain  a  straight  lead  at  all  times. 

The  drag-line  and  hoisting  cables  are  continually  subjected  to 
vibratory  stress  and  shocks  and  should  be  made  of  the  very  best 
plow  steel.  There  are  several,  well-known  brands  or  makes, 
generally  designated  by  a  colored  strand  woven  into  the  cable 
and  thus  deriving  the  names,  "red  strand,"  "yellow  strand," 
etc. 

60.  Method  of  Operation. — A  steam-operated  machine  re- 
quires the  services  of  four  men;  an  engineer,  a  fireman  and  two 
laborers.  The  engineer  stands  at  the  front  end  of  the  platform 
and  by  means  of  the  brakes  and  levers  controls  the  entire  opera- 
tion. The  fireman  keeps  the  boiler  fed  with  fuel  and  water  and 
has  general  supervision  of  the  machinery.  The  laborers  act  as 
pitmen  and  are  of  general  service  about  the  machine.  The  fire- 
man is  unnecessary  when  the  excavators  are  operated  by  electric 
motors  or  internal-combustion  engines. 

The  operation  of  excavation  commences  with  the  bucket  in 
the  first  position  shown  in  Fig.  41.  The  engineer  releases  the 
hoisting-line  and  drag-line  drums  and  allows  the  bucket  to  drop 
to  the  surface,  where  it  will  be  in  the  second  position  shown  in  Fig. 
41.  The  further  manipulation  of  the  bucket  depends  on 


SCRAPER  EXCAVATORS  99 

the  type  of  bucket  used  and  has  been  described  in  the  previous 
section  entitled  "Bucket." 

61.  Cost  of  Operation. —  The  cost  of  operation  of  a  scraper- 
bucket  excavator  depends  on  the  class  of  work,  the  kind  of  ma- 
terial to  be  handled,  the  efficiency  of  the  engineer,  the  character 
and  cost  of  the  power  used,  etc. 

The  type  of  machine  in  general  use  is  a  steam-power  excavator, 
equipped  with  a  2^-yd.  bucket.  Such  a  machine,  on  ditch  or 
railroad  construction  should  excavate  about  1000  cu.  yd.  of  loam 
and  clay  during  a  10-hr,  day.  The  following  is  a  typical  case 
of  the  cost  of  operation,  under  such  conditions,  for  a  10-hr,  day: 

OPERATING  COST  OF  STEAM-POWER  SCRAPER-BUCKET  EXCAVATOR 

Labor; ' 

1  engineer $5 . 00 

1  fireman 3.00 

2  laborers,  @  $1.75  each 3.50 

1  team  and  driver  (hauling  coal,  etc.) 3 . 50 

Total  labor  cost,  per  day $15 . 00 

Fuel  and  Supplies: 

2  tons  of  coal,  @  4.00 $8.00 

Oil  and  waste 1 . 65 

Water..  0.35 


Total  fuel  and  supplies $10.00 

General  and  Overhead  Expenses: 

Repairs $4 . 00 

Incidental  expenses 2 . 00 

Depreciation  (10  per  cent,  of  $10,000)1 5.00 

Interest  (6  per  cent,  of  $10,000)1 3 . 00 


Total  general  and  overhead  expense $14.00 

Total  cost  of  operation  for  10-hr,  day $39.00 

Average  daily  excavation  (cu.  yd.) 1000 

Unit  cost  of  scraper-bucket  excavation,  cu.  yd., 

$39. 00 -M 000  =$0.039. 

62.  Field  of  Usefulness.— The  field  of  work  of  the  drag-line 
excavator  has  become  a  wide  one  since  1910.  Its  early  use  was 
largely  in  reclamation  work,  the  construction  of  ditches  and  dikes 

1  Based  on  a  life  of  10  years  and  200  working  days  per  year. 


100    EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

on  irrigation  and  drainage  projects.  Its  great  length  of  boom 
gives  this  excavator  a  wide  radius  of  operation  and  permits  of 
the  deposition  of  material  in  spoil  banks  at  a  sufficient  distance 
from  the  sides  of  the  cut  to  prevent  caving  of  the  banks.  The 
drag-line  principle  permits  the  excavation  of  material  at  a  con- 
siderable depth  below  the  surface  and  its  elevation  to  a  corre- 
spondingly high  elevation  above  the  surface.  The  limitations 
of  the  drag-line  excavator  are  shown  in  Fig.  55. 

The  use  of  the  caterpillar  tractor  allows  a  heavy  machine  to 
move  over  soft,  wet  soils  on  drainage  work.  The  machine  starts 
at  the  lower  end  of  the  canal  and  excavates  as  it  moves  upstream, 


FIG.  55. — Limitations  of  various  sizes  of  drag-line  excavator. 

thus  allowing  the  surplus  soil  water  to  drain  off  through  the  new 
channel.  The  careful  operation  of  the  bucket  will  result  in  the 
construction  of  a  canal  with  smooth  and  uniform  bottom  and  side 
slopes.  Recent  experience  in  the  South  and  West  has  proved  the 
efficiency  of  this  type  of  excavator  in  the  construction  of  dikes  and 
earthen  dams  on  reclamation  projects  and  embankments  on  rail- 
road work.  The  machine  moves  parallel  to  the  work  and  borrows 
the  material  from  one  side,  or  moves  ahead  of  the  work  and  bor- 
rows the  material  from  both  sides. 

Earthen  dams  and  dikes,  if  of  large  size,  should  be  made  in 
layers  of  about  6  to  8  inch  depth,  and  each  layer  wetted  and  rolled , 
by  a  heavy  steam  roller  before  the  deposition  of  the  material  for 


SCRAPER  EXCAVATORS 

the  next  layer.  Small  dikes  and  railroad  fills  can  be  satisfacto- 
rily built  without  wetting  and  rolling.  The  drag-line  excavator 
saves  the  haulage  equipment  necessary  in  this  class  of  earthwork 
where  either  an  elevating  grader  or  a  power  shovel  is  used. 

The  scraper-bucket  excavator  is  very  efficient  in  the  excavation 
of  gravel  pits  and  in  stripping  soil  from  quarries  and  mines. 
When  the  power  shovel  has  become  drowned  out  of  a  pit  which 
has  been  flooded,  the  drag-line  machine  can  work  from  a  higher 
level  and  excavate  for  a  considerable  distance  below  the  water. 

63.  Jacobs  Guided-line  Excavator. — In  the  use  of  the  ordinary 
drag-line  bucket  excavator,  difficulty  is  often  experienced  in 
guiding  the  bucket  when  stiff  material  is  encountered.  This 
difficulty  is  especially  noticeable  when  the  bucket  is  cutting  the 
sloping  banks  of  an  open  ditch  and  the  bucket,  in  its  upward  path, 
passes  from  stiff  to  loose  material.  Recently  an  excavator  has 
been  put  upon  the  market  designed  to  overcome  this  difficulty. 
This  new  machine  is  the  Jacobs  Guided-drag-line-bucket 
Excavator,  manufactured  by  the  Jacobs  Engineering  Company,  of 
Ottawa,  Illinois. 

This  excavator  consists  of  a  steel-framed  platform  made  up 
of  standard  stuctural  steel  shapes,  which  are  joined  with  fitting 
bolts.  This  upper  platform  revolves  on  a  circular  track,  which 
rests  on  a  lower  steel-framed  platform.  The  machinery  consists 
of  a  three-drum  hoist  with  steel  gearing  and  the  whole  mounted 
on  a  heavy  cast-iron  base,  which  is  bolted  to  the  upper  platform. 
The  machinery  is  operated  by  either  steam  or  gasoline  power. 
The  two  swinging  drums  are  operated  by  a  double-cone  friction 
and  are  connected  to  the  drum  shaft  of  the  hoisting  engine  by  a 
sprocket  and  bushed  chain. 

The  distinctive  feature  of  the  machine  is  the  guide  boom, 
which  consists  of  a  steel  girder  shaped  like  a  figure  J,  with  the 
hook  end  hanging  vertically  from  a  straight  boom.  Both  booms 
are  pivoted  at  the  front  end  of  the  upper  platform.  The  bucket, 
which  is  a  rectangular  steel  box,  open  at  the  end  toward  the 
machine,  is  attached  to  a  trolley  which  travels  on  the  guide  boom, 
having  two  double-flanged  wheels  riding  on  the  upper  flange  and 
a  third  wheel  bearing  against  the  lower  flange  to  keep  the  bucket 
from  kicking  upward. 

"In  making  the  cut,  the  bucket  is  hauled  inward  by  a  cable  leading 
directly  from  the  trolley  to  the  engine.  For  dumping,  it  is  hauled  out- 
ward by  the  back  haul  cable,  which  leads  from  the  trolley  to  the  head 


METHODS  AND  COSTS 


of  the  main  boom  and  back  to  the  engine.  The  bucket  is  dumped  by 
continuing  its  travel  to  the  vertical  end  of  the  guide  boom,  the  boom 
being  first  swung  around  to  the  position  at  which  the  load  is  to  be 
deposited." 

The  machine  is  self-propelling  and  travels  on  a  track,  which  is 
made  in  sections  and  is  moved  by  the  machine  itself. 

This  machine  has  been  used  for  the  construction  of  open  ditches, 
tile  ditches  and  back  filling  same,  levees,  roads  and  highways,  etc. 

This  excavator  is  built  in  various  sizes,  from  one  having  a  24-yd. 
bucket  and  25-ft.  boom  to  one  with  a  lj^-yd.  bucket  and  a  40-ft. 


FIG.  56. — Jacobs  guided-drag-line  bucket  excavator. 

boom.  The  cost  of  the  machines  varies  from  $3500  to  $6000, 
depending  on  the  length  of  the  boom  and  the  capacity  of  the 
bucket. 

A  line  drawing  showing  the  construction  of  the  Jacobs  Guided- 
drag-line-bucket  Excavator  and  the  boom  and  bucket  in  dig- 
ging and  dumping  positions,  is  given  in  Fig.  56. 

64.  Walking  Drag-line  Excavator. — The  walking  excavator 
is  an  adaptation  of  a  walking  traction  device  to  the  drag-line  ex- 
cavator. It  is  especially  adapted  to  use  on  drainage  and  irri- 
gation projects  where  several  ditches  are  to  be  built  in  one  lo- 
cality. Ordinarily,  when  an  excavator  is  through  with  one  job 
and  is  ready  to  start  another  piece  of  work,  it  is  necessary  to  dis- 
mantle the  machine,  transport  the  parts  to  the  new  site,  and  re- 


SCRAPER  EXCAVATORS  103 

assemble  them.  Th's  involves  a  considerable  expenditive  of 
time,  labor,  and  money.  The  machine  can  be  erected  at  the  point 
where  it  is  unloaded  from  cars  or  boats  and  can  walk  to  the  job 
at  the  rate  of  about  3  miles  per  10-hr,  day. 

The  walking  drag-line  excavator  differs  from  the  ordinary 
drag-line  machine  principally  in  its  substructure  construction. 
The  customary  lower  frame  and  truck  rollers  or  caterpillar  tractors 
are  replaced  by  the  walking  device  which  is  quite  different  in 
design  and  operation  from  that  described  above  for  the  walking 
scoop  dredge. 


FIG.  57. — Walking  drag-line  excavator.     (Courtesy  of  Monighan  Machine  Co.) 

The  superstructure  of  this  excavator  is  very  similar  in  design 
and  construction  to  the  ordinary  drag-line  excavator.  Three 
sizes  of  machine  are  in  regular  use:  the  smallest,  equipped  with 
a  40-ft.  boom,  a  1-yd.  bucket,  and  operated  by  a  45-h.p. 
kerosene  engine;  the  medium,  equipped  with  a  50-ft.  boom, 
a  2-yd.  bucket,  and  operated  by  a  steam  plant;  and  the 
largest,  provided  with  a  60-ft.  boom,  a  2*^ -yd.  or  3-yd.  bucket, 
and  operated  by  a  steam  plant. 

The  walking  device  consists  of  two  large  shoes  or  platforms, 
one  on  each  side  of  the  central  circular  support,  and  two  wheel 
segments  or  cams,  each  of  which  is  keyed  to  the  end  of  a  heavy 
shaft  extending  across  the  machine.  On  the  lower  end  of  each 
cam  is  pivoted  a  beam  whose  ends  are  chain  connected  to  the 


104    EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

ends  of  each  platform.  A  view  of  this  mechanism  is  shown  in 
Fig.  57.  A  large  gear  wheel  on  the  shaft  meshes  with  a  pinion 
on  the  loading-drum  shaft  of  the  main  engine.  The  pinion  is 
controlled  by  a  jaw  clutch  and  brake. 

To  move  the  machine,  the  pinion  clutch  is  thrown  in  and  the 
engine  started.  As  the  shaft  revolves,  the  cams  and  pivoted 
beams  lift  the  platforms  and  swing  them  forward  to  a  resting 
place  on  the  ground.  As  the  shaft  revolves,  the  cams  move 
over  the  upper  surfaces  of  the  platforms  until  they  come  into 
contact  with  the  stop  blocks,  when  the  motion  is  stopped,  and 
the  machine  is  moved  forward  and  downward  to  the  surface. 
When  futher  movement  is  not  desired,  the  cams  are  revolved 
until  the  beams  and  platforms  are  elevated  above  the  ground, 
and  the  machine  then  rests  entirely  on  its  circular  base,  about 
which  it  may  revolve  as  a  pivot  for  the  purpose  of  excavating. 
The  pinion  is  now  locked  by  a  brake  and  the  drum  clutch  released 
to  commence  digging. 

The  walking  scoop  dredge  operates  at  about  the  same  cost 
as  the  floating  dipper  dredge.  A  machine  equipped  with  a 
1^-cu.yd.  dipper  and  operated  by  a  40-h.p.  gasoline  engine, 
can  handle  about  1500  cu.yd.  of  loam  and  clay  per  10-hr,  day, 
at  an  average  cost  of  about  4  cents  per  cubic  yard. 

65.  Locomotive  Crane  Excavator. — The  traveling  derrick  or 
locomotive  crane  is  a  very  useful  and  adaptable  type  of  excavating, 
hoisting,  and  conveying  machine.  It  has  been  serviceable  in 
many  lines  of  construction  work  as  the  machine  may  be  used  for 
excavation,  transportation  of  various  kinds  of  materials,  loading 
and  unloading  wagons,  cars,  barges,  etc. 

The  essential  parts  of  a  traveling  derrick  are  the  car,  the  hoist- 
ing engine,  and  the  derrick.  The  machines  are  made  in 
capacities  varying  from  3  tons  to  20  tons.  A  machine  in 
operation  is  shown  in  Fig.  58. 

The  car  is  a  steel-frame  platform  which  supports  directly 
the  cast-iron  turntable  bed  and  the  counterweights.  The  plat- 
form is  mounted  on  a  four-wheel  truck,  equipped  either  with 
broad-tired  wheels  for  road  traction,  or  with  standard  railroad 
wheels  for  the  smaller  sizes  of  crane.  The  larger  sizes,  generally 
10-ton  capacity,  are  mounted  on  two  four  -wheel  trucks,  equipped 
above  with  standard  railroad  wheels.  The  car  is  provided  with 
draw-bars  for  the  four-wheel  type,  and  couplers,  steam  brake, 
grab  handles,  steps,  etc.,  for  the  8- wheel  type. 


SCRAPER  EXCAVATORS 


105 


The  power  for  the  cranes  may  be  steam,  electric,  or  that  fur- 
nished by  an  internal  combustion  engine.  Ordinarily  steam 
power  is  used,  but  the  other  kinds  would  be  more  economical 
when  the  cost  of  coal  or  wood  is  high  compared  with  electric 
power  and  gasoline. 

The  steam  equipment  consists  of  a  boiler,  engine,  hoisting 
mechanism,  rotating  mechanism,  and  traveling  mechanism. 
The  boiler  is  of  the  vertical,  tubular  type,  and  should  be  capable 
of  working  at  a  pressure  of  100  Ib.  with  quick-steaming 
qualities  and  large  steam  capacity.  The  engine  is  usually  of 


FIG.  58. — Locomotive  crane. 


(Courtesy  of  the  Brown  Hoisting  and  Conveying 
Machinery  Co.} 


the  vertical,  double-cylinder  type,  provided  with  link-motion 
reversing  gear,  wide-ported  slide  valves,  etc.  The  hoisting 
mechanism  consists  of  a  double-drum  winch.  The  hoist  drum 
is  driven  from  a  friction  clutch  on  the  main  engine  shaft.  The 
bucket  drum  is  operated  from  the  hoist  drum  by  a  slip  friction. 
Both  drums  are  controlled  by  friction-clutch  brakes,  lever 
operated  by  one  man.  The  rotating  mechanism  consists  of  two 
friction  clutches  driving  a  chain  of  gears.  The  upper  platform, 
which  supports  the  operating  and  excavating  equipments, 
can  be  revolved  in  either  direction  through  a  complete  circle. 
The  traveling  mechanism  consists  of  a  set  of  gears  driven  by  a 


106     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

friction  clutch  on  a  shaft  geared  to  the  crank  shaft  of  the  engine. 
The  machine  may  be  moved  in  either  direction. 

The  excavating  equipment  consists  of  the  boom  or  crane, 
and  the  dipper  or  bucket.  The  boom  is  a  steel-frame  structure, 
hinged  at  its  lower  end  to  the  front  of  the  upper  platform,  and 
supported  at  its  outer  and  upper  end  by  guys  extending  to  the 
rear  corners  of  the  platform.  At  the  outer  end  of  the  crane  is  the 
sheave  over  which  the  hoist  line  passes  on  its  path  from  the  drum 
to  the  bucket. 

The  bucket  or  dipper  may  be  a  grab  bucket,  of  the  orange- 
peel  or  clam-shell  type,  or  a  drag-line  dipper.  The  former  is 
used  for  the  excavation  of  softer  soils  while  the  latter  is  more  serv- 
iceable in  the  removal  of  the  denser  and  harder  soils.  In  the 
latter  case,  a  separate  drag-line  drum  must  be  provided  in  the 
hoisting  mechanism. 

66.  Method  of  Operation. — A  traveling  derrick  is  operated  by 
a    crew   of  3  to  10  men,  depending  on  the  amount  of  extra 
labor  necessary.     An  engineer  controls  all  the  operations   of 
excavating,  rotating,  and  traveling,  a  fireman  operates  the  boiler, 
a  signalman  is  often  necessary  for  deep-trench  work,  and  one  or 
more  laborers  are  used  for  general  service  about  the  machine 
and   in   the  excavation.     When  a  skip  is  used,  shovelers  are 
required. 

The  method  of  operation  is  very  similar  to  that  of  a  revolving 
shovel  and  the  reader  is  referred  to  that  section  of  the  book  for  a 
complete  discussion  of  this  subject. 

On  trench  excavation,  one  machine  may  be  used  for  excavation 
only,  or  may  excavate  and  later  return  to  back  fill.  On  large 
works,  it  has  been  found  advantageous  to  use  two  or  more  ma- 
chines coordinately;  one  for  the  rough  excavation,  one  for  the  fin- 
ished excavation  and  for  handling  pipe  and  materials,  and  one 
for  the  back  filling. 

67.  Cost  of  Operation. — The  cost  of  operation  would  vary 
greatly  with  the  size  of  the  machine,  the  efficiency  of  its  operation, 
the  character  of  the  material,  etc.     The  following  statement  is 
given  as  an  approximate  idea  of  the  cost  of  operation  under  aver- 
age conditions. 

A  10-ton  machine,  equipped  with  an  automatic  clam-shell 
bucket  of  1  yd.  capacity,  and  moving  on  a  track  along  the  side 
oHhe  trench,  will  be  considered.  The  material  is  clay  for  a  depth 


SCRAPER  EXCA  VA  TORS  1 07 

of  8  ft.,  and  is  underlaid  by  a  substratum  of  gravel.     Following 
is  an  estimate  of  the  cost  of  operation  for  a  10-hr,  working  day: 

OPERATING  COST  OP  TRAVELING  DERRICK 

Labor: 

1  engineer $5 . 00 

1  fireman 3.00 

3  laborers,  ©  $2.00  each 6.00 


Total  labor  cost,  per  day $14 . 00 

Fuel  and  Supplies: 

1  ton  coal ' $4.00 

Oil,  waste,  and  repairs 1 . 50 


Total  fuel  and  supplies $5 . 50 

General  and  Overhead  Expenses: 

Depreciation  (5  per  cent,  of  $5000) » $1 . 25 

Interest  (6  per  cent,  of  $5000) l 1 . 50 

Incidental  expenses 2. 25 


Total  general  expenses $5 . 00 


Total  cost  of  work  for  10-hr,  day $24. 50 

Total  excavation  for  10-hr,  day  (cu.  yd.) 400 

Unit  cost  of  traveling  derrick  excavation,  per 

cu.  yd.,  $24.50  -^  400  - $00.061 


68.  Field  of  Usefulness. — The  traveling  derrick  is  serviceable 
in  the  excavation  of  wide  trenches  and  channels  where  the  soil 
conditions  are  favorable  for  the  use  of  a  grab  or  scoop  bucket. 
In  trench  work  this  machine  is  especially  useful  where  the  width 
of  the  excavation  is  over  5  ft.  and  other  forms  of  excavators  are 
not  adaptable.     With  good  management  this  machine  may  be 
used  very  efficiently  for  a  combination  of  excavation,  back  filling 
and  the  removal  of  sheeting  and  bracing. 

69.  Resume. — The    scraper-bucket    excavator    has   come   in 
general  use  for  various  forms  of   earthwork;  ditch   and  canal 
excavation,  the  construction  of  earthen  embankments  and  dykes, 
the  operation  of  gravel  'pits  and  open-cut  mines,  the  dredging 
out  of  natural  channels,  etc. 

1  Based  upon  200  working  days  in  a  year  and  a  20-year  life. 


108     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

For  reclamation  work,  where  the  magnitude  of  the  work  is 
less  than  about  10,000  cu.  yd.  and  where  the  ditch  is  of  small 
cross-section,  some  type  of  light,  drag-line  excavator  should  be 
used.  For  channels  of  large  cross-section  and  where  the  amount 
of  work  is  greater  than  50,000  cu.  yd.,  a  drag-line  machine  with 
a  bucket  of  from  1%  cu.  yd.  to  2%  cu.  yd.  capacity,  can  be  effi- 
ciently used.  Where  the  top  width  of  the  channel  is  over  80  ft., 
two  machines,  one  on  each  side  of  the  channel,  will  be  necessary. 

For  the  removal  of  sand,  silt  and  loose  gravel  from  natural 
streams  or  artificial  channels,  the  excavator  can  work  most  effi- 
ciently with  a  long  boom  and  a  clam-shell  or  orange-peel  bucket. 

With  the  successful  application  of  gasoline  power  to  a  scraper 
bucket  excavator,  the  fuel  problem  is  considerably  lightened  for 
the  use  of  a  large  machine  at  a  distance  from  a  railroad.  The  use 
of  electric  power  is  the  ideal  method  of  operation,  when  such 
power  can  be  economically  secured  from  a  local  transmission  line. 

The  walking  excavator  is  adapted  to  reclamation  work  where 
there  are  a  number  of  channels  to  be  excavated  in  one  locality. 
The  walking  scoop  dredge  has  proved  to  be  efficient  in  large 
drainage  canal  construction  where  the  soil  was  soft  and  wet. 
The  walking  drag-line  excavator  is  best  adapted  to  operating 
where  the  soil  conditions  are  more  favorable. 

The  recent  adaptation  of  the  caterpillar  tractor  to  the  scraper- 
bucket  excavator  has  made  possible  the  use  of  this  type  of  ma- 
chine for  the  reclamation  of  low,  wet  lands. 

70.  Bibliography. — For  additional  information,  consult  the 
following : 

Books 

1.  "The  Chicago  Main  Drainage  Channel,"  by  C.  S.  HILL,  published  in 
1896  by  Engineering  News  Publishing  Company,  New  York      129  pages, 
8  in.  X  11  in.,  105  figures. 

2.  "Drainage  of  Irrigated  Lands  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  California," 
by  SAMUEL  FORTIER  and  VICTOR  McCoNE.     Bulletin   217,   published  by 
Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

3.  ''Excavating  Machinery  Used  in  Land  Drainage,"  by  D.  L.  YARNELL. 
Bulletin  No.  300,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Magazine   Articles 

1.  A   Clamshell    Bucket   with    Electric    Motors    Opening   and    Closing 
Attachment.     Engineering  &  Contracting,  July  16,  1913. 

2.  Cost  of  Excavating  Drainage  Ditches  with  Steam  and  Electric  Machines. 
Engineering  Record,  December  26,  1914.     2000  words. 


SCRAPER  EXCA  VA  TORS  1 09 

3.  Ditching  with  the  Bowman  Ditcher,  T.  AHERN.     Railway  Age  Gazette, 
August  18,  1911.    .Illustrated,    1000  words. 

4.  Dragline    Bucket    Excavator  with  Martinson  Tractor.     Engineering, 
London,  November  13,  1914.     Illustrated,   1300  words. 

5.  The  Drag-line  Excavator,  J.  P.  HUTCHINS.     Mining  Magazine,  Novem- 
ber,  1910.     Illustrated,  2000  words. 

6.  Drag-line     Excavators     in     Railroad     Construction.     Railway     Age 
Gazette,  June  19,  1914.     Illustrated,   1200  words. 

7.  Drag-line     Excavators     with     High-Duty    Machinery.     Engineering 
Record,  April  3,  1915.     Illustrated,   1000  words. 

8.  Drag-line  Excavator  Methods  in  Construction  of  Winnipeg  Acqueduct. 
Engineering   &   Contracting,   March    21,    1917.     Illustrated,  jlOOO  words. 

9.  Earth-Moving  with  Electric  Dragline  Excavators.     Engineering  N ews, 
June  17,  1915.     200  words. 

10.  Electrically   Driven  Dragline  Scrapers  Dig  45  Mile  Irrigation  Canal. 
Engineering  Record,  January  29,  1916.     Illustrated,   2000  words. 

11.  A  Giant  Excavator.      Engineering,   London,    April    15,  1910.     2000 
words. 

12.  A  Giant  Steam  Excavator.     Scientific  American,  July  9,  1910.     2000 
words. 

13.  A    Home-made   Clamshell  Excavator  of  1877.     Engineering  News, 
July  8,  1915.     Illustrated,   300  words. 

14.  Large  Bucket  Boom  Dredge.     Engineering  Record,  July  27,  1895. 

15.  Maintenance  Excavator  at  Orland  Reclamation  Project  in  California. 
Engineering  Record,  April  11,  1914.     Illustrated,   1000  words. 

16.  Mammoth  Electric  Draglines  Dig  Diversion  Channels  and  Construct 
Levees.     Engineering  Record,  June  24,  1916.     Illustrated,  2500  words. 

17.  A    Motor-Operated    Clam-Shell    Bucket.     Engineering   News,  July 
24,  1913.     Illustrated,  500  words. 

18.  Method  and  Cost  of  Operating  the  Weeks  Two-line  Shovel  for  Drag- 
line Excavators,  GLENVILLE  A.  COLLINS.     Engineering-Contracting,  April 
26,1911.     Illustrated,  1000  words. 

19.  A  New  Portable  Excavator  for  Light  Excavation  and  Sand  and 
Gravel    Handling.     Concrete-Cement    Age,    February,     1915.     Illustrated, 
250  words. 

20.  A  New  Style  of  Scraper  Excavator.     Engineering  News,  March  2, 
1905.     Illustrated,  600  words. 

21.  A    New    Walking    Excavator.     Engineering    News,    April    9,    1914. 
Illustrated,  1200  words. 

22.  A   New    Type  of   Traveling .  Excavator  for   Ditcher.     Engineering 
Record,  December  12,  1914.     Illustrated,   1000  words. 

23.  Oil-Engine  Excavator  with  Detachable  Tractor.     Engineering  News, 
October  22,  1914.     Illustrated,  300  words. 

24.  Pitchforks,  Centrifugal  Pumps  and  160- Ton  Draglines  Dig  Acqueduct 
Ditch  Through  Muskeg  Bogs,  WILLIAM  SMAILL.      Engineering  News-Record, 
April  19,  1917.     Illustrated,  4500  words. 

25.  Reversible  Dragline  Bucket  for  Double  Wear.     Engineering  Record, 
February  27,  1915.     Illustrated,  150  words. 

26.  River  Diversion  and  Flood  Control  in  Missouri.     Engineering  News, 
August  24,  1916.     Illustrated,   3000  words. 


110     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

27.  Scraper-bucket  Excavator  on  New  York  State   Barge   Canal.     En- 
gineering-Contracting, March  23,  1910. 

28.  Some   New  Excavating  Machines.     Engineering  News,   March   16, 
1911.     Illustrated,  2000  words. 

29.  Some  Records  of  Work  with  a  Scraper-bucket  Excavator  on  the  New 
York  State  Barge  Canal.     Engineering-Contracting,  March  23,  1910.     1000 
words. 

30.  Stripping   with    Dragline  Excavators,  L.   E.  IVES.     Engineering  & 
Mining  Journal,  November  28,  1914.     Illustrated,  2000  words. 

31.  A  Very  Large  Dragline  Excavator.     Engineering  News,  June  24, 1915. 
Illustrated,   400  words. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

TEMPLET  EXCAVATOR 

71.  Preliminary. — Many  types  of  excavators  construct  open 
channels  with  rough  bottoms,  uneven  slopes,  and  steep  banks 
which  are  subject  to  subsequent  caving.     These  irregularities 
in  the  surfaces  of  the  channels  retard  the  flow  of  the  water  and 
greatly  increase  the  deposition  of  silt,  debris  and  other  materials 
carried  by  the  water  in  suspension.     During  recent  years  an 
excavator  has  come  into   use  for  the   construction   of    open 
channels  with  true  and  smooth  side  slopes  and  grades.     Since 
1900,   a   unique  type  of  excavator  has  been  devised   for  the 
construction  of  levees  and  these  two  types  will  be  discussed  in 
this  chapter. 

OPEN-CHANNEL  EXCAVATOR 

72.  General  Description. — A  double-faced,  reversible,  positive- 
cleaning  bucket  moves  along  a  guide  frame,  which  is  shaped 
at  its  lower  section  to  the  desired  cross-section  of  the  ditch.     The 
guide  frame  is  supported  on  a  platform  or  framework  composed 
of  structural  steel  members,  strongly  braced  and  bolted  together. 
This  platform  is  supported  on  wheel  trucks  or  caterpillar  tractors, 
which  are  necessary  for  soft,  wet  soils.     Templet  excavators  with 
wide  and  with  narrow  frames  are  shown  in  Figs.  59  and  60, 
respectively. 

Power  for  the  operation  of  the  machine  may  be  furnished 
by  a  steam-power  equipment  or  by  an  internal  combustion  engine. 
The  latter  type  of  power  equipment  has  generally  been  found 
to  give  very  satisfactory  results  and  to  be  cleaner,  cheaper, 
and  simpler  in  operation  than  the  ordinary  steam  plant.  If  a 
steam  engine  and  boiler  are  used,  a  25-h.p.  to  40-h.p.  engine 
will  be  required,  while  a  gas  engine  for  the  same  machine  should 
have  from  50  h.p.  to  80  horse  power.  The  power  plant  is  mounted 
on  the  central  part  of  the  platform  and  is  operated  with  a  set  of 
levers  by  one  man. 

The  excavating  equipment  consists  of  the  guide  frame  and  the 
bucket.  The  guide  frame  is  made  up  of  two  steel  members  which 

111 


112     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

are  placed  parallel  and  form  a  track  over  which  the  bucket  moves. 
This  frame  is  made  in  two  shapes  at  its  bottom  section  to  provide 


FIG.  59. — Austin   templet   excavator   with   wide   bottom   frame.     (Courtesy  of 

F.  C.  Austin  Co.) 


FIG.  60. — Austin  templet  excavator  with  narrow  bottom  frame.     (Courtesy  of 

F.  C.  Austin  Co.) 

for  the  excavation  of  narrow  and  of  wide  ditches;  the  side  slopes 
are  nearly  1:1..  The  frame  is  well  braced  by  steel-frame  members 
and  can  be  raised  and  lowered  through  the  platform. 


TEMPLET  EXCAVATOR 


113 


Fio.  61. — Limitations  of  Austin  templet  excavator  with  narrow  bottom  frame. 
(Courtesy  of  F.  C.  Austin  Co.) 


— 101' 


Fio.  62. — Limitations  of  Austin  templet  excavator  with  wide  bottom  frame. 
(Courtesy  of  F.  C.  Austin  Co.) 


114     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

The  bucket  is  a  rectangular-shaped  box  with  two  open  ends 
and  cutting  edges.  A  plunger  head  fits  inside  the  box  section. 

73.  Method  of  Operation. — The  guide  frame  is  lowered  to  the 
ground  surface  and  the  bucket  drawn  down  and  along  the  bottom 
of  the  frame.     As  it  moves  along  it  cuts  a  thin  slice  of  earth 
which  is  carried  on  to  the  upper  section  of  the  frame.     Here 
trips  are  located  and  they  push  the  plunger  head  through  the 
bucket  and  thus  the  contents  are  discharged  into  either  wagons 
or  cars  or  upon  a  spoil  bank  below.     As  the  bucket  moves  back 
and  forth  along  the  frame,  the  latter  is  lowered  so  as  to  gradually 
feed  the  bucket  into  the  earth  and  increase  the  depth  of  cut. 
Thus  a  section  of  ditch  prism  about  3J^  ft.  in  length  is  made 
with  one  position  of  the  machine.     The  machine  then  moves 
ahead  and  cuts  another  section  of  ditch,  and  so  on.     The  limita- 
tions of  the  two  types  of  templets — narrow  and  broad  bottoms — 
are  given  in"!Figs.  61  and  62. 

74.  Cost  of  Operation. — The  gasoline-power  machine  equipped 
with  caterpillar  tractors  is  the  type  of  templet  excavator,  which 
is  most  generally  used  in  the  excavation  of  channels  in  loose 
and  soft  soils.     For  the  operation  of  this  machine  a  crew  of  three 
to  four  men  would  be  required ;  an  engineer,  ah  assistant,  a  labor- 
er, and  a  teamster.     A  steam-operated  machine,  run  on  a  track 
would  require  the  services  of  one  or  two  extra  men  to  haul  fuel, 
move  track,  etc.     The  engineer  operates  the  bank  of  levers  which 
control  the  movement  of  the  bucket,  the  raising  and  lowering 
of  the  frame,  and  the  tractive  movement  of  the  machine  along  the 
surface.     The  assistant  keeps  the  machinery  oiled  and  in  good 
working  order.     The  laborer  provides  planking  or  tracking  where 
necessary,  and  does  general  service  about  the  machine.     The 
teamster  hauls  the  gasoline,  water,  and  supplies  necessary  for  the 
work. 

The  cost  of  operation  of  a  typical  machine  in  the  construction 
of  a  drainage  channel  through  alluvial  soil  under  favorable  condi- 
tions would  average  about  as  follows  for  a  10-hr,  day: 

OPERATING  COST  OF  TEMPLET  EXCAVATOR 
Labor : 

I  engineer $4 . 00 

1  assistant 3 . 00 

1  laborer 2 . 00 

1  team  and  driver .  .  3 . 50 


Total  labor  cost,  per  day $12. 50 


TEMPLET  EXCA  VA  TOR  1 1 5 

Fuel  and  Supplies: 

35  gallons  of  gasoline    @  25p $8 . 75 

Oil,  waste,  etc 1 . 25 


Total  fuel  and  supplies $10 . 00 

General  and  Overhead  Expenses: 

Depreciation  (12^  per  cent,  of  $12,000) « . .  $10 . 00 

Interest  (6  per  cent,  of  $12,000)' 4.80 

Repairs  and  incidentals 4.20 


Total  general  and  overhead  expenses $19.00 


Total  cost  of  operation  for  10-hr,  day .  .  .$41.50 

Total  excavation  (cu.  yd.) 700 

Unit  cost  of  templet  excavation,  per  cu.  yd., 

$41.50  -r  700  =  $0.059 

75.  Field  of  Usefulness. — A  water  channel,  to  secure  highest 
efficiency  of  operation,  should  have  a  true  grade  and  uniform  and 
smooth  side  slopes.     On  irrigation  and  drainage  projects,  the 
distribution  canals  and  open  ditches  are  peculiarly  susceptible 
to  filling  up  with  silt,  de*bris,  and  vegetable  matter  during  seasons 
of  low  flow.     In  the  case  of  small  ditches,  this  filling  up  may  be- 
come so  great  in  a  few  years  as  to  render  the  channel  practically 
useless.     This  means  that  these  artificial  waterways  must  be 
cleaned  out  every  few  years  in  order  to  maintain  their  efficiency 
and  capacity.     In  order  to  reduce  this  maintenance  expenses 
to  a  minimum,  it  is  advisable  to  construct  the  channels  as  nearly 
mechanically  perfect  as  possible. 

The  templet  excavator  is  the  best  form  of  excavator  for  the  con- 
struction of  an  open  channel,  where  the  soil  conditions  are  favor- 
able. In  alluvial  soils,  such  as  loam,  clay,  sandy  loam,  and  marl, 
the  machine  does  very  satisfactory  work.  But  in  hard  soils, 
such  as  hard-pan  or  indurated  gravel,  and  in  lands  where  many 
obstructions  such  as  stumps,  boulders,  and  roots  occur,  the  prog- 
ress is  slow  and  difficult  and  the  work  expensive. 

LEVEE  BUILDER 

76.  General  Description. — The  templet  levee    builder   is    a 
simple  modification  of  the  open-channel  excavator  described  in 
the  preceding  articles.     The  machine  consists  of  a  platform, 

1  Based  on  150  working  days  in  a  year  and  an  8-year  life. 


116     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


which    supports    an   exca- 
vator frame  at  one  end  and 
a  levee  runway  at  the  other 
end.       The     platform     is 
built    of    timber    or    steel 
and  has  a  length  of  22  ft. 
and    a    width    of  20  feet. 
Upon  the  platform  is  placed 
the     power    equipment 
which  is  generally  housed 
in.     The    platform   moves 
on  a  track  made  up  of  12 
X  12  in.  timbers,   200  ft. 
in  length.     On  the  tops  of 
these   timbers  are    spiked 
T-rails   which  support  the 
flanged  wheels  of  the  plat- 
form trucks.     For  soft  soils, 
caterpillar  tractors  are  used. 
The    power    equipment 
consists  of  a  steam  boiler 
and  engine.     The  former  is 
a  50-h.p.  fire-box  locomo- 
tive type  of  boiler  weigh- 
ing   10,500    pounds.     The 
engine  is  a  40-h.p.  reversi- 
ble,    double-cylinder, 
double-friction  drum,  hoist- 
ing engine,  provided-  with 
steel  gearing.     The  engine 
weighs     about     12,000 
pounds.     A  gasoline  engine 
may  be  used  instead  of  the 
steam     equipment     when 
desirable. 

A  four-legged  A-frame, 
made  up  of  structural 
steel  members  is  supported 
on  the  platform.  From 
the  top  of  this  frame,  cables 
pass  over  steel  sheaves  to 


TEMPLET  EXCA  VA  TOR  117 

the  outer  ends  of  the  excavator  frame  and  the  levee  runway. 
These  cables  are  connected  to  the  drum  of  the  hoisting  engine 
and  thus  control  the  raising  and  lowering  of  these  two  frames. 
See  Fig.  63. 

On  the  outer  or  borrow-pit  end  of  the  platform  is  hinged  a 
steel  frame  or  guideway,  which  has  the  general  shape  of  a  ditch 
cross-section,  and  can  be  raised  and  lowered  by  means  of  cables 
passing  over  a  sheave  at  the  outer  end  of  the  frame,  thence  over  a 
sheave  at  the  top  of  the  A-frame  and  thence  to  the  engine.  This 
frame  forms  a  track  over  which  a  bucket  passes.  The  bucket 
is  made  of  steel  plate  with  a  heavy  manganese  steel  cutting  edge. 
Its  length  is  48  in.,  depth  36  in.,  and  width  43  inches.  Buckets 
having  capacities  of  from  lj^  to  2J^  cu.  yd.  each  can  be  used 
on  this  machine.  The  approximate  weight  of  a  2-yd.  bucket 
is  3000  pounds. 

77.  Method  of   Operation. — The  process  of  excavation  be- 
gins with  the  bucket  at  the  farthest  outside  bearing  of  the  run- 
way.    From  this  point  the  bucket  is  drawn  by  a  cable  over  the 
guideway  and  then  across  the  berm   and  up  the  levee   run- 
way and  is  dumped.     Thus,  the  bucket  in  its  path  moves  over 
a  continuous  guideway  which  extends  from  the  outer  point  of 
the  borrow  pit,  to  the  front  of  the  platform  and  thence  to  the 
center  of  the  levee.     The  bucket  after  dumping  is  pulled  back 
along  its  track  to  the  outer  point  of  the  cutting  frame,  where 
it  commences  the  excavation  of  another  slice  of  earth.     The 
frame  is  gradually  lowered  as  the  bucket  excavates,  until  the  bot- 
tom of  the  frame  is  horizontal.     Then  the  frame  is  raised  and  the 
whole  machine  moves  ahead  about  3  ft.  to  its  position  for  the  ex- 
cavation of  another  section  of  the  ditch. 

78.  Cost  of  Operation. — Under  favorable  conditions  this  ma- 
chine will  excavate  and  dump  about  1000  cu.  yd.  of  earth  per 
10-hr,  day.     The  labor  required  is  an  operator,  a  fireman,  a 
track  gang  composed  of  two  men  and  a  team  of  horses  and  a  man 
and  team  for  hauling  fuel,  supplies,  etc.     When  caterpillar  tract- 
ors are  used  the  track  gang  is  unnecessary,  except  when  the  soil 
is  very  soft  and  one  or  two  extra  laborers  are  required  for  plank- 
ing.    About  two  tons  of  coal  are  used  in  a  10-hr,  shift.     The 
operating  cost  for  a  10-hr,  day  will  vary  from  $25  to  $30,  when 
the  soil  conditions  are  favorable. 

79.  Field  of  Use. — The  levee  builder  is  made  to  excavate 
borrow    pits    with     1%:1    or    with     1:1    side    slopes.     With 


118     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

lj^  to  1  slope,  the  machine  can  excavate  a  pit  having  a  maxi- 
mum depth  of  20  ft.  and  bottom  width  of  20  ft.  and  a  minimum 
bottom  width  of  5  feet.  With  1  : 1  side  slopes,  the  maxi- 
mum depth  would  be  30  ft.  and  corresponding  maximum  bottom 
width  of  30  ft.,  and  a  minimum  bottom  width  of  6  feet.  The  width 
of  berm  varies  from  20  ft.  to  40  ft.  depending  on  the  amount 
of  material  to  be  placed  in  the  levee  and  upon  local  conditions. 
This  type  of  levee  builder  operates  satisfactorily  when  the  soil 
conditions  are  favorable.  It  is  not  adapted  to  hard  soil  or  where 
there  are  many  large  stones,  stumps,  or  other  obstructions.  It 
makes  a  borrow  pit  of  smooth  and  uniform  cross-section  and  de- 
posits the  material  by  means  of  an  adjustable  belt  conveyor, 
at  any  desired  distance  from  the  pit.  The  work  which  this  ma- 
chine does  is  nearly  mechanically  perfect,  and  has  a  much  more 
finished  appearance  than  that  done  with  a  dredge. 

80.  Resume. — A  ditch  should  be  made  to  a  true  grade  and  with 
uniform  and  smooth  side  slopes  in  order  to  ensure  high  working 
efficiency.     Drainage  and  irrigation  ditches  are  peculiarly  sus- 
ceptible to  filling  up  with  silt,  debris,  and  vegetation  during  sea- 
sons of  low  flow.     The  author  has  seen  very  few  ditches,  whose 
capacity  and  efficiency,  after  3  to  5  years  use,  were  not  con- 
siderably reduced.     In  the  case  of  small  ditches  this  often  be- 
comes a  serious  matter,  sometimes  rendering  the  ditch  practically 
useless.     The  only  remedy  in  such  a  case  is  the  re-excavation  of 
the  ditch.    Large  channels  generally  require  cleaning  out  every 
few  years  in  order  to  maintain  their  efficiency  and  usefulness. 
In  order  to  reduce  this  expense  and  labor  to  a  minimum,  ditches 
should  be  excavated  as  nearly  mechanically  true  and  uniform  as 
is  possible  under  existing  conditions. 

The  templet  excavator  is  the  best  form  of  excavator  to  use 
where  soil  conditions  are  favorable.  It  is  not  suited  to  the  ex- 
cavation of  very  wet  land,  or  where  trees,  stumps  and  large 
stones  abound.  The  use  of  caterpillar  tractors  enables  the  ma- 
chine to  work  on  soft  soil  by  commencing  at  the  outlet  and  work- 
ing up-stream. 

The  templet  excavator  in  the  excavation  of  clay  and  loam, 
under  average  working  conditions,  has  an  average  daily  output 
of  from  500  to  800  cubic  yards.  The  operating  cost  will  vary  from 
4  to  10  cents  per  cubic  yard. 

81.  Bibliography. — For   further   information,    the    reader   is 
referred  to  the  following: 


TEMPLET  EXCA  VA  TOR  1 19 

Books 

1.  "The  Chicago  Main  Drainage  Channel,"  by  C.  S.  HILL,  published  in 
1896  by  Engineering  News  Publishing  Company,  New  York.     129  pages, 
105  figures,  8  in.  X  11  in. 

2.  "Excavating  Machinery,"  by  J.  O.  WRIGHT.     Bulletin  published  in 
1904  by  Department  of  Drainage  Investigations  of  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 

3.  Excavating  Machinery  Used  in  Land  Drainage.     Bulletin  No.  300, 
published  in  1915  by  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Magazine  Articles 

1.  Cost  of  Ditching  in  the  Everglades.     Engineering  Record,  February  7, 
1917.     Illustrated.     400  words. 

2.  A  German  Excavator  on  the  New  York  State  Barge  Canal,  EMILE  Low. 
Engineering  Record,  April  21,  1906.     Illustrated.     700  words. 

3.  Lowrie's    Power    Excavator.     Railroad   Gazette,    December    8,    1899. 
Illustrated.     1300  words. 

4.  Mechanical  Appliances  for  Canal  Excavation,  E.  LEADER  WILLIAMS. 
Engineering  News,  October  31,  1891.     Illustrated.     1000  words. 

5.  Methods  of  Excavating  Canal  Using  a  Bridge  Conveyor  Excavator, 
with  Costs  of  Work  for  Twenty-four  Consecutive  Months.     Engineering- 
Contracting,  November  23,  1910.     Illustrated.     1800  words. 

6.  A   New   Canal   Excavator.     Railroad  Gazette,   September   25,    1891. 
Ilustrated.     400  words. 

7.  The  Van  Buren  Excavator.     Iron  Age,  October  7,  1909.     Illustrated. 
1500  words. 


CHAPTER  IX 
TRENCH  EXCAVATORS 

82.  Classification. — The  rapid  development  of  sanitary  and 
drainage  engineering  during  the  past  30  years  has  led  to  the  gen- 
eral construction  of  sewer,  water-supply  and  drainage  systems. 
The  great  amount  of  trench  excavation  made  necessary  for  the 
installation  of  these  improvements  has  led  to  the  use  of  special 
types  of  excavators.     In  work  of  any  magnitude,  these  machines 
are  more  efficient  and  economical  than  hand  labor. 

Trench  excavators  may  be  divided  into  two  general  classes, 
viz.: 

1.  Sewer  and  water-pipe  excavators. 

2.  Drainage  tile-trench  excavators. 

I.  PIPE-TRENCH  EXCAVATORS 

This  class  of  excavators  will  be  considered  under  the  following 
classifications : 

A — Continuous  bucket  excavator. 

(a)  Endless  chain  type. 

(ft)  Wheel  type. 
B — Trestle  cable  excavator. 
C — Trestle  track  excavator. 

A— CONTINUOUS  BUCKET  EXCAVATOR 

83.  Preliminary. — There  are  two  general  types  of  excavators 
which  are  used  for  the  construction  of  trenches  with  vertical 
sides;  the  chain  and  sprocket  type  and  the  wheel  type.     The 
wheel  machine  may  be  easily  adapted  to  the  excavation  of  open 
channels  with  sloping  sides  by  the  addition  of  a  cutting  device. 

84.  Endless  Chain  Excavator. — This  form   of   excavator   is 
built  on  the  principle  of  the  continuous  excavator  or  ladder 
dredge  and  the  several  makes  differ  only  in  details  of  construction. 
The  essential  parts  are  a  frame  supported  on  wheel  trucks, 
the  operating  mechanism  and  the  excavating  equipment. 

120 


TRENCH  EXCAVATORS 


121 


The  platform  is  built  of  steel  members  strongly  braced  and 
framed  together.  It  may  be  supported  on  two  trucks  equipped 
with  broad-tired  wheels,  or  made  in  two  sections  and  supported 
on  three  trucks.  In  the  latter  case,  the  rear  section  which  carries 
the  excavating  chain  is  hinged  to  the  main  section  which  is 


FIG.  64. — Parsons  trench  excavator.     (Courtesy  of  the  Parsons  Co.) 

supported  on  one  truck.  Figure  64  shows  a  diagrammatic  view  of 
this  type,  and  Fig.  65  shows  a  view  of  the  single-platform  machine. 

A  steam  or  internal-combustion  engine  may  be  used.  The 
latter  is  more  economical  in  sections  of  the  West  where  coal  is 
expensive,  and  is  cleaner,  more  compact,  and  does  away  with 
the  use  of  a  fireman  and  the  discomfort  of  a  boiler  in  warm 
weather. 

A  steam-power  equipment  consists  of  a  boiler,  an  engine,  and 
the  transmission  mechanism.  The  boiler  is  of  the  vertical, 


122     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

tubular  type  and  is  placed  near  the  front  end  of  the  platform. 
The  engine  is  placed  behind  the  boiler  and  is  of  the  single-cylin- 
der, vertical  type.  Power  is  transmitted  to  the  bucket  chain, 
the  disposal  conveyor,  and  the  central  axle,  for  traction  through 
gears  and  sprocket  chains. 

The  excavating  equipment  consists  of  the  bucket  chain,  and 
the  disposal  conveyor.  The  bucket  chain  in  one  type  of  machine 
comprises  an  endless  chain  moving  over  sprocket  wheels  on 
the  ends  of  an  arm,  which  is  suspended  from  the  rear  end  of  the 
platform  and  is  adjusted  to  permit  of  the  excavation  to  the  proper 


FIG.  65. — Chicago  trench  excavator.     (Courtesy  of  F.  C.  Austin  Co.) 

grade  regardless  of  inequalities  of  the  surface  over  which  the 
machine  passes.  In  the  other  type  of  trench  machine,  a  circular 
wheel  is  suspended  from  the  rear  of  the  platform  and  revolves 
on  a  central  axle. 

The  buckets  are  attached  to  the  sprocket  chain  or  to  the 
periphery  of  the  wheel.  They  are  scoop  shaped  and  provided 
with  cutting  edges  or  teeth,  depending  upon  the  nature  of  the 
material  to  be  excavated.  The  width  of  the  trench  is  governed 
by  the  width  of  the  buckets,  which  are  made  in  several  widths 
and  can  be  easily  removed  and  changed.  In  one  make  of  ma- 
chine, an  increased  width  of  trench  can  be  secured  by  moving  the 
whole  bucket  chain  sideways  along  the  supporting  frame.  This 


TRENCH  EXCAVATORS 


123 


arrangement  provides  for  the  excavation  of  a  trench  up  to  6*ft. 
in  width  without  changing  the  buckets  and  also  the  excavation 
of  a  manhole  at  any  point  without  delay.  Figure  66  shows  a 
sectional  bucket  used  on  the  Parsons  Trench  Excavator. 

The  disposal  conveyor  consists  of  a  belt  conveyor  placed  at 
the  rear  of  and  transversely  to  the  platform.  Its  elevation  is 
below  the  top  of  the  bucket  chain.  At  the  top  sprocket,  the 


Fio.  60. — Bucket  of  the  Parsons  trench  excavator.     (Courtesy  of  the  Parsons 

Co.) 

buckets  turn  over  and  deposit  the  material  on  this  moving  belt, 
which  conveys  it  to  one  side  of  the  trench  and  deposits  it  in  a 
spoil  bank. 

85.  Method  of  Operation. — The  labor  crew  necessary  to  operate 
a  trench  excavator  depends  on  the  character  and  magnitude  of 
the  work  and  the  kind  of  power  used.  With  a  steam-power 
equipment,  an  engineer  or  operator,  a  fireman,  and  one  or  more 
helpers  will  be  required.  The  operator  has  direct  charge  of 
the  operations  of  excavation  and  traction.  The  fireman  operates 
the  boiler  and  has  general  supervision  of  the  engine.  The  help- 
ers are  of  general  service  in  furnishing  the  machine  with  fuel, 
water,  and  supplies,  in  bracing  the  trench  when  necessary,  and 
in  general  service  about  the  work. 


124     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

The  bucket  chain  moves  downward  and  inward  and  removes  a 
thin  slice  of  material  as  each  bucket  comes  in  contact  with  the 
soil.  The  depth  of  cut  is  regulated  by  raising  and  lowering  the 
free  end  of  the  frame.  When  obstructions,  such  as  cross  pipes, 
large  boulders,  etc.,  occur,  the  chain  may  be  raised  over  them 
and  fed  down  into  the  earth  on  the  other  side.  The  material, 
from  the  top  of  the  revolving  chain  or  wheel,  falls  upon  the  belt 
conveyor  and  is  carried  to  either  side  of  the  trench,  making  a 
continuous  spoil  bank. 

When  one  section  has  been  excavated,  the  machine  moves 
ahead  and  starts  another  slice.  The  excavating  chain  or  wheel 
can  be  raised  clear  of  the  surface  and  the  machine  moved  over 
ordinary  roads  at  a  speed  of  about  1  mile  per  hour.  Table  VI 
gives  the  dimensions,  weights,  capacities,  and  costs  of  three 
different  makes  of  trench  excavator.  See  page  129. 

86.  Cost  of  Operation. — The  following  comparison  of  the  cost 
of  excavation  of  a  trench  by  hand  and  by  machine  labor  will  be 
of  interest  to  the  reader. 

The  soil  is  clay  and  loam  and  the  ground  surface  fairly  level 
and  solid  enough  to  support  a  trench  machine.  The  trench 
has  a  width  of  28  in.  and  an  average  depth  of  12  feet.  Each 
laborer  will  excavate  7  cu.  yd.  per  10-hr,  day  and  as  the  ma- 
terial must  be  rehandled  for  the  last  3  ft.  of  depth  of  cut,  we 
will  assume  five  extra  men  for  the  work  and  not  include  their 
output.  A  crew  of  45  men  will  dig  350  ft.  of  trench  during  a 
10-hr,  day  and  the  total  excavation  will  be  about  315  cubic 
yards.  The  same  crew  will  back  fill  at  a  cost  of  7  cents  per  cubic 
yard.  The  machine  will  excavate  250  ft.  of  trench  per  10- 
hr,  day.  The  back  filling  will  be  done  by  teams  and  scrapers. 

Following  is  a  detailed  statement  of  the  cost  of  the  work  for 
the  two  methods,  based  on  a  10-hr,  day. 

COST  OF  TRENCH  EXCAVATION  BY  HAND 
Labor: 

I  foreman $4 . 00 

1  timberman 3 . 00 

1  helper 2.50 

1  pipe  layer 3 . 00 

1  helper 2.50 

50  laborers  @  $2. 00 each 100.00 

Total  labor  cost  for  excavation $115.00 

Back  filling  315  cu.  yd.  @  7£ 22.00 

Total  cost  of  hand  work  for  10-hr,  day $137.00 


TRENCH  EXCA  VA  TORS  1 25 

COST  OF  TRENCH  EXCAVATION  BY  MACHINE 

Labor: 

1  foreman $4 . 00 

timberman 3 . 00 

helper 2.50 

pipe  layer 3 . 00 

helper 2.50 

engineer 4 . 00 

fireman 2 . 50 

,    j  1  hauling  for  excavator 
3  teams  @  $4 . 00  each  <  _ 

\  2  back  filling  trench  12.00 

2  laborers  (&  $2 . 00  each .  .  4 . 00 


Total  labor  cost,  per  day $37 . 50 

Fuel  and  Supplies: 

1  ton  coal $4 . 00 

Oil,  and  waste 1 . 00 

Water..  1.00 


Total  fuel  and  supplies $0 . 00 

Overhead  and  General  Expenses: 

Interest  (6  per  cent,  of  $6000)1 $1 .80 

Depreciation  (10  per  cent,  of  $6000) l 3.00 

Repairs 2 . 70 

Incidentals . .  4 . 50 


Total  general  and  overhead  expenses $12.00 

Total  cost  of  operation  for  a  10-hour  day $55 . 50 

Total  cost  of  excavation  of  350  ft.  of  trench,  pipe  laying, 
and  back  filling  by  hand  work,  for  a  10-hr,  day,  is  $137.00. 

Total  cost  of  excavation  by  machine  of  225  ft.  of  trench, 
pipe  laying  by  hand  work,  and  back  filling  by  scrapers  is  $55.50. 

A  comparison  of  the  above  results  shows  that  during  a  10- 
hr,  day,  a  trench  excavator  will  do  about  70  per  cent,  of  the 
amount  of  trench  excavation  that  can  be  done  by  hand  labor  and 
at  40  per  cent,  of  the  cost. 

87.  Field  of  Usefulness. — The  continuous  bucket  excavator 
is  especially  adapted  for  trench  excavation,  where  the  width  does 
not  exceed  72  in.  and  the  depth  20  ft.,  and  the  soil  conditions 
are  favorable.  This  is  especially  true  through  the  Middle  West, 

1  Based  upon  200  working  days  in  a  year  and  a  10-year  life. 


126     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

where  clay  and  loam  with  few  obstructions  such  as  boulders, 
roots,  etc.,  predominate  up  to  shallow  depths. 

On  account  of  the  great  weight  of  the  machines,  they  are  not 
practicable  for  use  in  soft  wet  soils,  unless  mounted  on  caterpillar 
tractors.  For  the  excavation  of  hard  soils,  considerable  trouble 
is  often  experienced  on  account  of  the  breaking  of  the  bucket 
chain.  Hence,  it  is  desirable  to  use  a  machine  with  a  strong, 


FIG.  67. — Buckeye   traction   ditcher.     (Courtesy1®  of  Buckeye    Traction   Ditcher 

Co.) 

heavy  chain  for  the  digging  of  hard-pan,  blue  clay,  and  other 
hard,  tough  materials. 

The  trench  excavator  is  efficient  and  economical  for  the  ex- 
cavation of  trenches  24  in.  and  over  in  width  and  over  6  ft. 
in  depth,  and  one  machine  can  do  the  work  of  from  80  to  200 
men. 

88.  Bucket  Wheel  Excavator. — A  well-known  type  of  trench 
excavator  uses  a  wheel  instead  of  a  chain  for  the  support  of  the 


TRENCH  EXCA  VA  TORS 


127 


buckets.  The  principal  parts  of  this  machine  are  a  traction 
engine  and  a  frame  which  supports  the  excavating  equipment. 
The  traction  engine  or  power  equipment  consists  of  a  vertical 
steam  boiler  and  engine  or  a  gasoline  engine.  The  size  of  engine 
varies  from  a  12-h.p.  gasoline  engine  on  the  smallest  size  machine 
to  a  90-h.p.  multiple-cylinder  engine  of  a  55-h.p.  two-cylinder 
vertical  steam  engine  and  boiler  on  the  largest  size  machine. 
See  Table  VI,  page  129.)  Figure  67  shows  a  No.  5  Buckeye 
traction  ditcher  equipped  with  the  two  kinds  of  power  plant. 


FIG.  68. — Diagram  of  excavating  wheel  of  Buckeye  traction  ditcher.     (Courtesy 
of  Buckeye  Traction  Ditcher  Co.) 

Attached  to  the  rear  end  of  the  truck  or  engine  frame  is  the 
wheel  frame,  connected  with  a  cross-bar,  which  moves  vertically 
between  two  posts.  The  front  part  of  the  frame  can  be  raised 
and  lowered  by  means  of  a  ratchet  wheel.  The  rear  part  of  the 
frame  is  connected  to  sheaves  at  the  top  of  the  vertical  frame  by 
cables,  which  may  be  operated  to  raise  the  wheel  from  the  ground 
when  it  is  desired  to  move  the  machine  from  one  trench  to 
another. 

The  wheel  frame  carries  an  open  wheel  8  ft.  in  diameter  and 
in.  wide.  This  wheel  has  no  axle,  but  revolves  by  means 


128     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

of  four  anti-friction  wheels  placed  inside  the  rim.     See  (8)  and 
(9)  in  Fig.  68. 

On  the  outer  rim  of  the  wheel  are  placed  14  buckets  as  shown 
by  (3).  These  buckets  have  a  top  and  back,  but  not  a  bottom.1 
They  are  shaped  somewhat  like  the  bowl  of  a  drag-scraper;  and 
in  fact,  thay  act  very  much  like  a  drag-scraper  in  digging; 
for  as  the  excavating  wheel  revolves,  each  bucket  cuts  off  a 
slice  of  earth  of  its  own  capacity.  Now,  this  earth  would 
fall  out  when  the  bucket  rises  above  the  surface  of  the  ground 
if  it  were  not  for  the  high-carbon  steel  arc,  marked  (13)  in  Fig. 
68.  This  arc  does  not  revolve,  as  it  is  not  fastened  to  the  wheel. 
When  an  excavating  bucket  reaches  the  end  of  the  arc  near 
the  top  of  the  wheel,  the  dirt  falls  out  of  the  bucket  upon  the  belt 
conveyor.  This  conveyor,  which  is  marked  (10),  carries  the  dirt 
off  outside  of  the  trench  where  it  piles  up.  It  will  be  noted  that 
the  dirt  slides  over  the  stationary  arc  (13)  only  a  short  distance 
near  the  top  of  the  wheel,  hence  there  is  very  little  wear  on  the  arc. 
As  we  have  said,  the  excavating  wheel  does  not  have  an  axle; 
it  is  made  to  revolve  by  a  pair  of  driving  sprockets  (7),  which 
mesh  with  the  segmental  gearing  (6).  It  should  be  noted  that 
the  driving  sprocket  (7)  is  directly  above  the  point  where  the 
earth  is  being  excavated,  so  that  the  force  is  applied  directly. 
Thus  the  weight  of  the  excavating  wheel  is  far  less  than  would 
be  necessary  were  it  driven  from  an  axle,  involving  also  great 
torsional  strain.  What  is  even  more  important,  the  excavating 
wheel  can  dig  into  the  ground  to  a  depth  of  nearly  two-thirds 
its  diameter,  so  that  with  a  comparatively  small  wheel  a  great 
depth  of  trench  is  secured. 

"It  will  be  seen  that  the  excavating  wheel  is  supported  between 
two  beams,  marked  (11),  which  can  be  raised  and  lowered.  The  rear 
end  of  the  frame  is  supported  by  a  post,  to  the  lower  end  of  which 
is  fastened  a  shoe  (14).  This  shoe  slides  along  the  bottom  of  the 
finished  trench,  thus  giving  great  stability  to  the  wheel  and  pre- 
venting wabbling.  The  side  cutters  (5),  are  bolted  to  the  rims  of  the 
excavating  wheel.  They  serve  to  slice  the  earth  from  the  sides  of  the 
trench,  and  prevent  the  excavating  buckets  from  sticking  or  becoming 
bound  in  the  trench.  Moreover  they  scrape  all  the  dirt  toward  the 
center  of  the  trench,  where  the  buckets  pick  it  up,  leaving  a  perfectly 
clean  cut." 

1  This  description  and  Fig.  68  are  taken  from  the  catalogue  of  the  Buck-  ' 
eye  Traction  Ditcher  Company. 


TRENCH  EXCAVATORS 


129 


"35  a)—. 

-    7     • 

>JTr. 

22SSS 

"5 

c. 

is 

COgO^    £ 

0 

5 

1 

|i 

x  a  o  c  o 

ci 

c 

i 

P 

888Si 

i 

aS-S 

ssess 

2 

^ 

X  X  X  X  X  • 

£ 

02^ 

CM    CO    CO    CO    CM 

B 

11 
if! 

O    Si    O    !O    CO 

Excavate 

|fl 

_r 
f 

- 

£3 

QC    -t-    0    (S    CM 
•-«    CM    CO   CO   !>• 

•0    X*  0"   3    3 

| 

J= 

/• 

a 
o 

I 

i-l    1-1    CM 

X* 

1 

t 

S 

1 

Hi 

eoooico 

S 

If 

0    CO    0    CM    0 

1 

s  s  a 

iil 

OD      00      00 

s  s  s 

1 

V     V     V     V 

C     C     C     fl 

!ii 

"o  "o  "o  "o   S 

85     S     S     83     * 

O  O  O  O  5 

6 

1 

o  o  o  -•  o 

"3 
S 

ll 

CM    O    «5    1C 

Tf<    •««    CO    CO 

0 

"S 

00000*0 

o"  GO  Oi  o:  ^  co 

o 

s 

Dimetisi 

gS 

:£^ 

OS    05    0    0 

0 

1 

8  III  || 

>0    rC   30    00    -H    CM 

(-1     1- 

8]      8! 

Traction^  kind 

erpillar 
erpillar 
eel  or  caterpill 
eel  or  caterpill 

i 

X 

3 

1 

o  o  c  f  x  o 

CM    CM    CM    CM    CM    CC 

agsi 

c 

^ 

* 

u 

"—  ^ 

VO   \W    \W    v«0    \^  N^1 

. 

|2 

:£ 

CM    CM    -O    « 

1 

1 

X    X   t>.    X    X    X 

IS 

.-.  : 

£ 

5 

1 

ii 

3.3.3. 

3 

V 

<5'-> 

assas 

5 

* 

1 

§ 

^ 

- 

^ 

0 

*•? 

CM    CM    CM    CO    CO    CO 

F 

CM    CM 

H 
5 

C 
^O 

3 

f    **    ^«    CM    X    X 
CM    CM    CM    CO    CM    CM 

8  8*  8"  8" 

£J 

37 

O     O     O 

i' 

^ 

^ 

85 

S 

- 

.2 

t 

^'° 

CM    X    X 
CM    CM    M 

pa 

w 

t^T? 

\e»  \e«  \e»  \e« 

1 

£0 

6 

CP 

"S" 

X 

I 

X 

• 

S.'" 

^ 

5 

2  2  ^1  N  «  CO 

jfl 

1-1    —I    CM    CM 

s  s  s  s  a  s 

eS     85    85     85     =5     a! 

e 

S| 

3  3 

1 

9 

u 

000000 

E 

o 

PH 

co    en 
S    g 

S  S 

"o  "o  "o  "o  "o  "o 

s  s  s  s  §  § 

O  O  O  O  O  C 

nil 

O  O  02  02 

K 

H 

6           : 
W  «  W  b 

1 

1 

m  cc  r»  QG  os  c 

130    EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

When  excavating  in  a  trench  the  machine  moves  continuously 
forward,  and  thus  gradually  feeds  the  wheel  into  the  soil.  The 
cutting  speed  can  be  varied  by  shifting  the  sprocket  wheels.  The 
depth  of  cut  is  regulated  by  the  operator,  who  sights  over  a 
sight-arm,  on  the  side  of  the  wheel  frame,  at  a  series  of  targets 
on  flag-poles.  By  turning  a  hand  wheel  he  raises  and  lowers  the 
excavating  wheel  until  the  sight-arm  is  at  the  proper  level.  The 
alignment  is  kept  by  lining  in  the  centers  of  the  front  and  rear 
wheels  with  the  flag-poles.  Where  the  ground  is  fairly  level,  a 
true  line  and  grade  can  be  easily  kept,  but  when  the  surface  is 
rolling  or  uneven,  constant  attention  is  necessary. 

The  traction  speed  of  an  excavator,  when  digging,  is  1  mile 
per  hour  but  on  account  of  the  necessary  stops  to  take  on  coal 
and  water,  to  fill  dead  furrows,  etc.,  an  average  speed  of  % 
mile  per  hour  is  all  that  can  be  attained.  Two  men  are  generally 
necessary  to  run  a  steam-operated  machine,  one  to  tend  the  boiler 
and  engine  and  the  other  to  operate  the  excavating  wheel.  It 
is  often  more  economical  of  fuel  and  labor  to  use  a  machine 
operated  by  a  gasoline  engine. 

The  cost  of  operation  and  the  field  of  usefulness  is  about  the 
same  as  explained  above  in  Articles  86  and  87. 

B— TRESTLE  CABLE  EXCAVATOR 

89.  Trestle  Cable  Excavator. — The  trestle  cable  excavator 
has  been  in  general  use,  especially  in  the  eastern  section  of  this 
country,  during  the  past  30  years,  for  the  excavation  and  back 
filling  of  large  trenches  for  waterworks  and  sewer  systems.  It 
has  many  admirable  features  and  is  especially  well  adapted  to 
large  sewer  trench  work  in  hard  soils.  A  trestle  cable  excavator 
on  sewer-trench  construction  is  shown  in  Fig.  69. 

This  type  of  excavating  machine  consists  of  a  series  of  trestles 
supporting  an  overhead  track.  The  trestles  or  bents  are  con- 
nected by  rods  at  the  bottom  and  by  the  beam  track  at  the  top 
and  rest  upon  a  plank  or  rail  track.  The  operating  machinery 
is  carried  by  a  platform  located  at  one  end  of  the  structure. 
The  overhead  track  supports  several  carriers  which  carry  the 
buckets  or  tubs.  The  whole  framework  is  self-contained  and 
can  be  moved  ahead  as  a  unit  from  one  section  of  the  work  to 
another. 

The  trestles  are  made  of  timber  framed  together  to  form  square 
or  A-shaped  bents.  They  are  from  15  ft.  to  20  ft.  in  height 


TRENCH  EXCAVATORS 


131 


and  are  equipped  with  castor  frames,  wheels,  etc.  These  bents 
are  connected  together  at  the  bottom  by  bars  of  tubular  steel  of 
from  1  in.  to  2^  in.  in  diameter.  The  bents  'rest  on  T-rails 
which  are  spiked  to  sections  of  planking,  and  enough  track  is 
provided  to  move  the  whole  machine  ahead  100  ft.  at  a  time. 

The  track  or  support  for  the  travelers  or  carriers  is  made  up 
of  sections  of  I-beams  or  channels  which  are  bolted  to  or  hung 
from  the  head  blocks  of  the  bents. 

The  operating  equipment  consists  of  the  boiler,  engine,  and 
car  upon  which  the  machinery  is  placed. 


FIG.  69. — Trestle    cable    excavator    operating    in    sewer    trench    construction. 
(Courtesy  of  Carson  Trench  Machine  Co.) 

The  boiler  is  of  the  vertical,  tubular  type,  and  is  equipped 
with  all  appliances  for  efficient  operation  and  control.  It  is 
usually  operated  at  a  steam  pressure  of  about  100  pounds.  The 
engine  is  a  2-drum,  double-cylinder,  hoisting  machine  with 
reversible  link  motion.  The  drums  are  controlled  by  friction- 
clutch  brakes;  one  carries  the  hoisting  rope,  and  the  other  carries 
the  endless  rope  which  operates  the  carriers  and  buckets.  The 
drums  are  independent,  and  so  arranged  that  they  may  be  operated 
in  unison  or  separately.  The  boiler  and  engine  are  generally 
mounted  on  the  same  bed  plate  which  is  supported  by  a  platform 
mounted  on  rollers  or  wheel  trucks.  The  front  end  of  the  car 


132     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

supports  the  head  trestle.  A  suitable  house  is  usually  built, 
in  sections,  over  the  platform  and  may  be  used  completely  or 
partly,  depending  on  climatic  conditions. 

The  excavating  equipment  consists  of  the  tubs,  the  carriers, 
and  the  cables. 

Upon  the  overhead  track  run  several  carriages,  travelers, 
or  carriers,  which  are  provided  with  wheels  made  to  fit  the  flanges 
of  the  structural  sections.  From  each  carrier  is  suspended  a  tub 
which  is  equipped  with  an  automatic  catch  and  is  self-dumping 
and  self-righting.  The  carriers  are  connected  by  a  continuous 
rope  which  is  operated  by  a  drum  on  the  engine,  and  are  raised 
and  lowered  by  hoisting  ropes  controlled  by  a  rope  operated  by 
another  drum  on  the  engine. 

90.  Method  of  Operation. — The  labor  crew  necessary  to  operate 
a  trestle  cable  excavator  consists  of  an  engineer,  a  fireman,  a 
latchman,  and  a  tubman.  The  engineer  operates  the  engine 
and  has  general  charge  of  the  work.  The  fireman  supplies  the 
boiler  with  fuel,  and  oils  the  machinery.  The  latchman  operates 
the  latches,  which  release  and  grip  the  tub  lines  for  raising  and 
lowering  the  buckets.  The  tubman  hooks  and  unhooks  the 
tubs,  and  has  general  charge  of  their  filling  and  emptying. 

The  machine  being  set  up  in  position,  the  engineer  operates 
the  hoisting  line  and  releases  the  jaw  clutches  on  the  tub  ropes, 
thus  allowing  the  tubs  or  buckets  to  drop  into  the  excavation. 
The  tubs  are  unhooked  and  another  set  of  filled  tubs  hooked  on. 
The  loaded  tubs  are  then  hoisted  up  to  the  locks  on  the  carriers, 
and  the  whole  set  is  moved  to  the  disposal  place  by  the  operation 
of  the  continuous  traversing  line.  Usually  one  section  of  the 
trench  is  being  excavated  while  another  section  is  being  back 
filled,  so  that  the  material  removed  at  the  former  place  can  be 
utilized  directly  in  the  latter.  It  may  be  necessary  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  work,  or  in  special  cases  of  crossings,  etc.,  to  dump  the 
material  into  temporary  spoil  banks,  or  into  carts  for  removal 
from  the  site.  As  soon  as  one  section  is  completed,  the 
machine  pulls  itself  ahead  by  means  of  a  winch  on  the  engine 
and  a  rope  passing  through  a  snatch  block  attached  to  a  dead 
man  set  ahead. 

Machines  may  be  had  with  double  and  single  upper  tracks. 
The  nominal  capacity  of  a  double-track  machine  is  50  per  cent, 
greater  than  that  of  a  single-track  machine,  as  one  set  of  buckets 
is  being  raised  loaded,  while  the  other  set  is  being  lowered  empty. 


TRENCH  EXCA  VA  TORS  1 33 

Thus,  three  sets  of  buckets  are  continually  in  use,  one  set  being 
filled,  one  hoisted  and  carried  to  the  dump,  and  the  other  dumped 
and  returned  to  be  loaded.  A  double-track  machine  is  more 
economical  for  trenches  over  5  ft.  in  width. 

The  average  output  for  a  6-bucket,  single-track  machine  is 
about  125  cu.  yd.  for  a  10-hr,  day. 

91.  Cost   of    Operation. — The   rental    charge   of   a    6-bucket 
single-track  machine  is  about  $200.00  per  month.     The  cost  of 
transportation,  setting  up,  and  dismantling  will  vary  with  the 
distance,  length  of  haul,  experience  of  men,  etc.,  and  will  range 
from  $100.00  to  $500.00. 

About  y±  ton  of  coal  per  day  will  be  used,  and  the  cost  of  oil, 
waste,  supplies,  etc.,  will  vary  from  $1 .00  to  $5.00  per  day.  The  net 
cost  of  operation  of  the  machine  would  be  about  $25.00  per  day. 
Assuming  an  average  output  of  100  cu.  yd.,  the  cost  of  the 
work  exclusive  of  sheeting,  pumping,  loosening  of  material  in 
trench,  etc.,  would  be  about  25  cents  per  cubic  yard. 

92.  Field    of    Usefulness. — The    trestle    cable    excavator    is 
especially  adapted  to  the  excavation  of  trenches  for  large  sewers 
and  water  mains  in  hard  soils,  and  in  city  streets.     The  work  is 
restricted  to  the  immediate  area  of  the  trench,  leaving  part  of  the 
street  unobstructed  for  traffic.     The  method  of  operation  is 
efficient,  as  the  excavated  material  is  generally  used  directly  in 
back  filling.     The  method  of  operation  is  also  easy,  simple,  and 
safe. 

93.  Carson-Trainer  Excavator. — For  trenches  through  sand, 
gravel  and  clay  where  the  cableway  type  of  machine  is  desirable 
but  impracticable  on  account  of  the  anchorages,  a  special  type 
of  machine,  known  as  the  "Carson-Trainor  Machine,"  has  been 
devised.     This   excavator   is   a   hoisting  and  conveying  device 
similar  to  the  regular  trench  machine.     A  series  of  A-shaped  or 
rectangular  trestles,  resting  on  a  track,  support  an  overhead  track- 
way made  up  of  a  double-channel  beam.     A  traveler  runs  upon 
the  lower  flange  of  this  girder,  and  is  held  in  position  or  moved 
backward  and  forward  by  an  endless  steel  traversing  rope  at- 
tached to  a  special  drum  of  the  engine.     The  hoisting  is  done  by 
a  separate  steel  cable  attached  to  the  main  drum  of  the  engine. 
The  machinery,  consisting  of  the  boiler  and  the  engine,  is  mounted 
on  a  covered  car,  placed  at  the  head  of  the  excavation.     The 
whole  framework  has  a  gage  of  16  ft.,  a  height  from  ground  to 
peak  of  20  ft.,  and  a  working  section  of  a  length  of  288  feet. 


134     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


- 


1 

.  . 

o  a  o> 

00    00 

S3  °A 

X  X 

co   CO 

2 

•So| 

c  g 

0)      >H      d? 

2-22 

OQ'8  M 

•^  « 

§§ 

X  X 

(N   <N 

"Sol 

ill 

fi     g 
0  0 

XX 

0 

00    00 

i'l'l 

11 

1 

•«j  t  - 
««    IN       . 

V 

g  S^ 

CQ 

w 

O^  | 

.. 

5     8 

f! 

ii 

5    .2 

^  * 

V        c8 

^   a 

11 

ill 

CO    CO 

0) 

s? 

I 

fl1  >> 

c    cs 

W  W 

a 

•s'S 


r 


Distance 
between 
trestles 


00    00 

X  X 


X  X 

<N    (N 


2  2 
o  o 

X  X 


00    00 


il 
II 

o  £ 


TRENCH  EXCAVATORS 


135 


Table  VII  gives  the  dimensions  and  capacities  of  the  various 
sizes  of  machine.  A  view  of  a  Carson-Tramor  excavator  in 
operation  on  sewer-trench  construction  is  shown  in  Fig.  70.  y 


Fio.  70. — " Carson-Trainor "   trench  excavator  on   sewer  trench  construction. 
(Courtesy  of  Carson  Trench  Machine  Co.) 


C— TRESTLE  TRACK  EXCAVATOR 

94.  General  Description. — The  trestle  track  excavator  is 
very  similar  in  its  method  of  operation  to  the  trestle  cable  ex- 
cavator. The  principal  difference  is  the  suspension  of  the 
carriers  from  a  car  or  carriage  which  moves  along  a  track  sup- 
ported on  the  tops  of  the  trestles. 

The  construction  consists  of  a  series  of  light,  steel-frame 
trestles,  of  trapezoidal  shape  and  6  ft.  in  height,  spaced  about 
10  ft.  on  centers.  These  trestles  are  mounted  on  double- 
flanged  wheels,  which  run  on  rails.  The  tops  of  the  trestles  are 
connected  by  steel  channels  which  form  a  continuous  track  on 
which  the  carriage  runs. 

The  operating  equipment  consists  of  a  vertical,  tubular  boiler, 
and  a  double-drum  hoisting  engine,  carried  on  a  car  at  the  forward 
end  of  the  machine. 

The  excavating  equipment  consists  of  a  steel-frame  car  sup- 
ported on  four  wheels  which  run  upon  the  trestle  track.  The 
car  is  operated  by  cables  which  connect  to  the  hoisting  engine. 


136     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


On  the  car  is  a  hoist  which  raises  and  lowers  two  steel  buckets. 
The  buckets  are  made  in  three  sizes;  J£,  %,  and  1  cu.  yd. 
capacities.  A  view  of  a  car  in  operation  is  shown  in  Fig.  71. 
95.  Method  of  Operation.  —  The  machine  requires  a  crew  of 
three  men;  one  to  operate  the  hoisting  engine,  and  two  to  operate 
the  bucket  hoists  on  the  carriage. 


FIG.  71. — Trestle  track  excavator.     (Courtesy  of  Potter  Mfg.  Co.) 


The  carriage  is  moved  by  a  cable  from  the  hoisting  engine  to 
the  place  of  excavation,  where  either  one  or  both  buckets  are 
lowered  into  the  trench,  filled  by  the  laborers  in  the  trench,  and 
raised  above  the  floor  of  the  car.  The  car  is  then  moved  to  the 
place  of  back  fill  or  dump,  where  the  buckets  are  lowered  and 
dumped. 

96.  Cost  of  Operation. — The  following  statement  is  given  as  a 
typical  case  of  the  cost  of  excavation  with  a  trestle  track  machine. 


TRENCH  EXCAVATORS  137 

The  trench  had  a  width  of  21  ft.  and  an  average  depth  of 
30  feet.  The  material  excavated  consisted  of  a  shallow  top 
layer  of  loam,  then  15  ft.  of  soft  blue  clay,  6  to  8  ft.  of  stiff 
blue  clay,  1  ft.  of  sandy  loam,  and  then  about  2  ft.  of  hard 
blue  clay.  The  trench  machine  was  equipped  with  6  buckets 
of  %  cu.  yd.  capacity,  and  four  were  filled  while  the  remaining 
two  were  being  removed  and  dumped.  The  excavator  removed 
the  lower  12  or  14  ft.  of  the  trench. 

The  following  gives  the  cost  of  operation  based  on  an  8-hr. 
day. 

OPERATING  COST  OF  TRESTLE  TRACK  EXCAVATOR 
Labor: 

1  foreman $5 . 50 

1  engineer 5 . 00 

1  fireman 3 . 00 

1  car  operator 3 . 50 

1  car  helper 2.00 

20  laborers  in  trench  @  $2.00  each 40.00 

1  laborer  on  dump 2 . 00 

Total  labor  cost,  per  day $61 . 00 

Fuel  and  Supplies: 

Yi  ton  coal  @  $4.00. .. $2.00 

Oil,  waste,  etc 1 .00 

Repairs 1 . 50 

Total  fuel  and  supplies $4 . 50 

General: 

Rent  of  machine  @>  $125  per  month $5. 00 


Total  cost  of  operation  for  an  8-hr,  day $70 . 50 

Average  daily  excavation  (cu.  yd.) 175 

Unit  cost  of  trestle  track  excavation,  per  cu.  yd., 

$70.50^175=  $0.40 

97.  Field  of  Usefulness. — The  trestle  track  excavator  has 
the  same  scope  and  advantages  as  the  trestle  cable  excavator. 
It  is  especially  efficient  in  trench  excavation  in  congested  city 
streets  where  the  demands  of  keeping  at  least  part  of  the  street 
open  to  public  traffic  requires  the  restriction  of  the  work  to  as 
limited  an  area  as  possible. 


138    EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

On  very  wide  trenches,  it  is  advisable  to  use  a  machine 
equipped  with  a  double  track  and  two  cars  in  order  to  facilitate 
the  work. 

H.  DRAINAGE-TILE  TRENCH  EXCAVATORS 
98.  Preliminary. — Until  about  18  years  ago  (1900),  a  large 
part  of  the  trench  excavation  for  tile  drainage  was  done  by  hand 
labor.  As  this  class  of  reclamation  work  became  more  general, 
especially  in  the  Middle  West,  various  forms  of  machinery 
were  devised  to  meet  the  demand  for  power  excavators.  These 
tile-trench  excavators  may  be  classified  under  the  same  divisions 
as  the  "Pipe-Trench  Excavators;"  (a)  Endless-chain  type  and 
(6)  Wheel  type. 


FIG.    72. — Hovland   tile  ditcher.     (Courtesy  of  St.  Paul  Machinery    Co.) 

99.  Endless -chain  Type. — There  are  several  makes  of  this 
type  of  tile-trench  excavator  and  the  following  description  is 
given  of  a  typical  make  which  has  been  devised  and  is  used  for 
the  laying  of  the  tile  as  well  as  for  the  excavation  of  the  trench. 

The  Hovland  tile  ditcher  is  made  in  two  sections;  a  front 
platform  which  carries  the  power  equipment,  and  a  rear  platform 
which  carries  the  excavating  chain.  Both  platforms  are  made  of 
steel  framework  supported  on  two  large  caterpillar  tractors. 
Fig.  72  shows  a  general  view  of  the  Hovland  tile  ditcher. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  forward  tractor  carries  the  power 
equipment  which  consists  of  a  vertical,  three-cylinder  gasoline 
engine.  The  main  shaft  of  the  engine  is  connected  by  sprocket 
chains  to  the  driving  shafts  of  the  excavating  belt  of  the 
tractions,  and  of  the  belt  conveyor. 


TRENCH  EXCAVATORS 


139 


The  excavating  equipment  is  carried  on  the  rear  platform 
and  consists  of  an  excavating  chain  and  its  supporting  frame- 
work. 

The  excavating  chain  is  made  up  of  two  continuous  chains 
which  carry  an  endless  set  of  hinged  links.  To  the  vertical 
sections  of  these  links  are  bolted  the  knives  or  cutters  of  any  width 
from  5  in.  to  30  inches.  The  links  are  hinged  in  such  a  way 
that  when  a  cutter  strikes  a  stone  or  other  obstruction  in  a  trench, 
the  chain  gives,  and  the  cutter  slides  over  the  obstruction  with- 
out injury.  An  automatic  cleaning  device  consisting  of  a  pro- 
jecting arm,  is  placed  above  the  upper  end  of  the  chain  and  scrapes 


FIG.  73. — Diagram   of  excavating  chain   of   Hovland   tile   ditcher. 
of  St.  Paul  Machinery  Co.) 


(Courtesy 


over  the  surface  of  each  bucket  as  it  passes.  The  excavated 
material  is  thus  removed  from  the  buckets  and  falls  upon  a  mov- 
ing belt  conveyor  which  is  located  under  the  excavating  chain 
at  its  upper  end. 

The  framework  which  supports  the  excavating  chain  is  shown 
in  Fig.  73.  It  comprises  a  small,  upper  wheel  and  a  large,  lower 
wheel,  or  drum,  about  which  the  chain  revolves.  The  lower 
wheel  is  suspended  by  chains  from  the  rear  of  the  frame  and 
can  be  raised  and  lowered  by  a  gear-operated  shaft.  The  upper 
wheel  is  on  a  shaft  which  is  chain  drivenPfromrthe  engine  located 
on  the  forward  platform. 

An  adjustable  steel-frame  curbing  can  be  fastened  to  the  rear 
of  the  excavating  tractor  and  drawn  along  the  completed  trench. 


140     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

This  curbing  can  be  adjusted  to  the  width  of  the  trench  and  made 
high  enough  to  project  above  the  ground  surface.  A  steel  spout 
is  placed  on  the  inner  and  curved'  portion  and  as  the  machine 
progresses,  a  man  places  a  tile  in  at  the  top  of  the  spout,  which 
is  curved  so  as  to  allow  the  tile  to  slide  out  in  place  along  the 
bottom  of  the  finished  trench. 

100.  Method  of  Operation. — A  crew  of  three  or  more  men  are 
necessary  to  properly  operate  a  tile-trench  excavator  an  engineer 
who  has  charge  of  the  operating  equipment,  an  operator  who  ma- 
nipulates the  excavating  wheel,  a  tile  layer  and  one  or  more 
laborers  to  supply  fuel,  water,  and  supplies  for  the  machine 
and  for  general  service  about  the  work. 


FIG.  74. — Diagram  showing  the  operation  of  the  excavating  chain  of  the  Hovland 
tile  ditcher.     (Courtesy  of  St.  Paul  Machinery  Co.) 

The  revolution  of  the  excavating  chain  or  wheel  brings  a 
series  of  knives  or  buckets  into  contact  with  the  soil  and  each 
bucket  removes  a  slice  of  earth,  which  is  dumped  upon  the  belt 
conveyor  and  carried  to  the  spoil  bank,  at  the  sides  of  the  trench. 
See  Fig.  74.  The  operator  lowers  the  wheel  or  chain  into  the 
soil  as  the  excavation  proceeds  and  governs  the  depth  by  a  sight 
rod,  placed  on  the  machine.  As  soon  as  the  required  depth  is 
reached  the  engineer  sets  the  tractor  chain  in  motion  and  the 
machine  moves  ahead  to  the  next  position. 

With  the  Hovland  tile  ditcher  the  drain  tile  can  be  laid  as 
the  excavation  is  completed,  by  placing  the  tile  in  the  curb 
which  follows  directly  behind  the  excavating  chain,  Fig.  183. 
It  is  often  necessary  to  reset  the  tile  after  it  leaves  the  curb 
in  order  to  secure  proper  alinement  and  close-fitting  joints. 


TRENCH  EXCA  VA  TORS  1 4 1 

One  manufacturer  has  devised  a  longitudinal  belt  conveyor, 
which  carries  the  excavated  material  to  a  point  behind  the  ma- 
chine and  dumps  it  back  into  the  trench.  This  device  has  not 
been  satisfactory  because  it  does  not  allow  enough  time  after  the 
excavation  for  the  placing  of  the  tile. 

101.  Cost  of  Operation. — An  approximate  estimate  of  the 
capacity  and  cost  of  operation  of  a  tile  ditcher  will  be  given  in 
the  following  statement. 

A  trench  machine  has  gasoline  power  equipment  and  an  exca- 
vating chain  or  wheel  capable  of  digging  a  trench  14l£  in.  wide 
and  4}-£  ft.  deep.  The  soil  is  loam  and  clay  with  gumbo  in 
places.  The  average  depth  of  cut  is  4!.£  ft.,  and  the  average 
progress  is  1300  ft.  per  10-hr,  day. 


OPERATING  COST  OF  TILE  DITCHER 

Labor: 

1  operator  @  $125  per  month ..  ..   $5.00 

1  fireman ...     3.00 

1  helper 2.00 

1  team  and  driver 3 . 50 

Total  labor  cost,  per  day . .  $13 . 50 

Fuel  and  Supplies: 

10  gal.  gasoline  @  25{ $2.50 

Oil,  waste,  etc 0.50 


Total  fuel  and  supply  cost $3  00 

General  and  Overhead  Expenses: 

Interest  (6  per  cent,  of  $5200)1 $2.00 

Depreciation  (12^  per  cent,  of  $5200)' 4.25 

Repairs  and  incidentals 2. 75 


Total  general  expense $9 . 00 

Total  operating  cost  per  10-hr,  day $25 . 50 

Average  progress  per  day  (ft.) 1300 

Average  daily  excavation  (cu.  yd.) 260 

Unit  cost  of  tile-trench  excavation,  per 

ft.  $25.50   -r  1300  =  $0.019 
per  cu.  yd.  $25  50   -=-  260  =     0.098 

1  Based  upon  150  days  per  3rear  and  an  8-year  life. 


142     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

102.  Field  of  Usefulness. — The  tile-trench  excavator  is  a  very 
efficient  and  practicable  machine  for  ordinary  soil  conditions  in 
fairly  level  land  with  few  obstructions.     Where  the  soil  is  low  and 
wet,  the  machine  must  be  supported  on  caterpillar  tractors  to  dis- 
tribute the  weight  over  the  soft  soil.     Where  obstructions  such  as 
large  stones,  roots,  etc.,  abound,  a  large  amount  of  extra  hand 
labor  is  required. 

For  work  of  considerable  magnitude,  the  tile  ditcher  can  ex- 
cavate a  trench  at  about  one-half  the  cost  of  hand  labor. 

103.  Wheel  Type. — This  type  of  tile-trench  excavator  has  been 
described  in  the  early  part  of  this  chapter  under  Article  88  and 
the  reader  is  referred  to  this  article  for  further  information. 

104.  Resume. — The  type  of  excavator  to  be  used  on  any  par- 
ticular job  of  pipe-trench  construction  depends  on  the  character 
of  the  soil,  the  extent  of  the  work,  the  width  and  depth  of  trench, 
the  available  operating  space  and  other  conditions. 

Where  soil  conditions  are  favorable  and  the  width  of  the  trench 
is  not  over  36  in.,  the  wheel  type  of  machine  can  be  economically 
used.  For  trenches  having  a  width  greater  than  36  in.  and  a 
depth  greater  than  12  ft.,  the  endless-chain  type  of  excavator 
is  required.  The  use  of  either  of  these  two  types  is  impracticable 
in  caving  or  very  hard,  dense,  soils.  The  parts  of  the  excavating 
equipment  should  be  properly  proportioned  for  strength  and  the 
best  of  material  combined  with  simplicity  of  design. 

Where  trenches  are  over  6  ft.  in  width  and  8  ft.  in 
depth,  the  continuous  bucket  type  of  excavator  cannot  be  used. 
The  trestle  cable  or  trestle  excavators  are  especially  devised  to 
meet  the  requirements  of  wide  trench  excavation,  especially  in 
the  restricted  areas  of  city  streets. 

The  tile-trench  excavator  has  become  a  thoroughly  practical 
and  efficient  machine  for  the  excavation  of  drainage  tile  trenches. 
In  the  loam  and  clay  soils  of  the  ordinary  low,  wet  land,  this 
type  of  excavator  equipped  with  caterpillar  traction  is  a  very 
efficient  machine.  Where  obstructions  such  as  large  stones, 
stumps,  etc.,  abound,  a  large  amount  of  extra  hand  labor  is 
required. 

The  tile  box  or  templet  which  follows  the  machine  and  auto- 
matically lays  the  tile  in  the  bottom  of  the  trench,  is  a  useful 
device  but  for  successful  operation,  requires  careful  attention 
and  adjustment.  As  a  general  thing  hand-laid  tile  is  more  ac- 


TRENCH  EXCAVATORS  143 

curate  as  to  alinement  and  fitting  of  joints  than  when  laid  by 
machine. 

Although  the  use  of  the  longitudinal  carrier  or  conveyor 
has  not  proved  very  efficient  or  economical,  improvements  may 
be  made  in  its  operation  so  that  less  power  may  be  required  and 
more  allowance  made  for  laying  the  tile. 

The  wheel  type  of  machine  is  more  generally  used  for  the  ex- 
cavation of  trenches  for  the  smaller  sizes  of  tile;  8  in.  and  under, 
while  the  endless-chain  machine  has  a  greater  range  in  size  and 
capacity  and  is  better  adapted  to  the  larger  work. 

The  internal  combustion  engines  are  generally  used  on  the 
smaller  size  machines  on  account  of  light  weight  and  economy  of 
labor  and  fuel.  Where  wood  or  coal  are  plentiful  and  cheap, 
steam  machinery  is  more  desirable. 

Farmers  and  contractors  doing  a  small  amount  of  trenching 
will  find  it  advisable  to  use  a  type  of  machine  with  a  detachable 
tractor  which  can  be  easily  detached  from  the  digging  equipment 
and  used  for  general  purposes. 

105.  Bibliography. — For  additional  information,  see  the  fol- 
lowing: 

Books 

1.  "Earth  and  Rock  Excavation,"  by  CHARLES  PRELINI,  published  in 
1905  by  D.  Van  Nostrand,  New  York.     421  pages,  167  figures,  6  in.  X  9  in. 
Cost,  $3.00 

2.  "Earthwork  and  Its  Cost,"  by  H.  P.  GILLETTE,  2d  edition,  published 
in  1912   by  McGraw-Hill  Book  Co.,  New  York.     254  pages,  60  figures, 
5  in.  X  8  in.     Cost,  $2.00. 

3.  "Excavating  Machinery  Used  in  Land  Drainage,"  by  D.  L.  YARNELL, 
Bulletin  No.  300  of  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  published  in  1915. 

4.  "Handbook   of   Cost    Data,"    by    H.    P.    GILLETTE,   published   by 
McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,   New  York.     1900  pages,  4%  in.   X   7  in. 
Cost,  $5.00. 

Magazine  Articles 

1.  Analysis   of   Trenching    Methods   and    Costs.     Engineering   Record, 
May  23,  1914.     Illustrated,  3000  words. 

2.  Basement  Excavating  with  a  Standard  Railroad  Type  Steam  Shovel. 
Excavating  Engineer,  November,  1916.     Illustrated,  1500  words. 

3.  The    Buckeye    Traction    Ditcher,    FRANK    C.    PERKINS.     Scientific 
American,  September  10, 1904.     Illustrated,  1500  words. 

4.  The  Cost  of  Digging  a  36-Mile  Trench  with  a  Buckeye  Traction  Ditcher. 
Engineering-Contracting,    February    12,    1908.     Illustrated,    1200    words. 

5.  Cost  of  Trenching  with  Sewer  Excavator  in  Moundsville,  W.  Va.f 
A.  W.  PETERS.     Engineering-Contracting,  February  28,  1912.     1500  words/ 


144     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

6.  Digging  an  Out-Fall  Sewer  for  the  City  of  San  Antonio.     Excavating 
Engineer,  February,  1916.     Illustrated,  1000  words. 

7.  Digging  a  Large  Sewer  in  Open  Cut  with  a  Revolving  Shovel.     Excavat- 
ing Engineer,  May,  1916.     Illustrated,  1500  words. 

8.  Ditching  and  Trenching  Machinery,  E.  E.  R.  TRATMAN.     Proceedings 
of  the  Illinois  Society  of  Engineers  and  Surveyors,   1911.     Illustrated,   6500 
words. 

9.  A  Dragline  Backfilling  Machine.     Engineering  News,  September  10, 
1914.     Illustrated,  400  words 

10.  Excavating  and  Backfilling  Sewer  Trenches  by  Machine.     Engineering 
Record,  January  2.  1915.     2000  words. 

11.  Excavation   for    W.    Bingham  Company's  Warehouse,    Cleveland, 
Ohio.     Excavating  Engineer,  March,  1915.     Illustrated,  1000  words. 

12.  Excavators  and  Steam  Shovels  in  Sewer  Construction,   FRANK  C. 
PERKINS.     Municipal  Engineering,  June,  1908.     Illustrated,  1200  words. 

13.  Farm  Ditching  by  Machinery.     Rural  Neiv  York,  August  6,  1910. 
1500  words. 

14.  Gantry  Cranes  Work  on  Sewer  at  Salt  Lake   City.     Engineering 
News,  July  20,  1916.     Illustrated,  1000  words. 

15.  An  Important  Legal  Decision  Regarding  Trench  Excavation.     Edi- 
torial on  the  Decision  given  by  the  U.  S.  Circuit  Court  of  Appeals  in  the 
Case  of  Gammino  vs.  Town  of  Dedham.     Engineering  Record,  January  2, 
1909.     1200  words. 

16.  Large     Sewer     Excavation     near     Chicago.     Excavating     Engineer, 
October,  1914.     Illustrated,  1200  words. 

17.  Machine  Trenches  220  Feet  an  Hour  in  Shale.     Engineering  News- 
Record,  February  14,  1918.     Illustrated,  1200  words. 

18.  A  Machine  for  Excavating  Narrow  Ditches,  EUGEN  EICHEL.     Zeit- 
schrift  des  Vereines  Deutscher  Ingenieure,  January  13,  1906.     1000  words. 

19.  Methods  and  Cost  of  Trench  Excavation  with  a  Trench  Digging 
Machine,    H.    P.    GILLETTE.     Engineering    Record,    December    30,    1905. 
1800  words. 

20.  New   Trenching    Machines.     Engineering  News,  September  2,  1915. 
Illustrated,  1100  words. 

21.  Novel  Method  of  Trench  Excavation.     Engineering  News,  November 
19,  1914.     Illustrated,  400  words. 

22.  The  Practical  Working  of  Trench  Excavating  Machinery,  ERNEST 
McCuLLOUGH.     Engineering     News,     December     24,     1903.     Illustrated, 
2500  words. 

23.  Rapid  Construction  of  a  Small  Sewerage  System  by  Trenching  Ma- 
chines.    Engineering  News,  June  25,  1914.     Illustrated,  1000  words. 

24.  Rapid  Trench  Excavation  at  Canadian  Camp  Follows  War  Call. 
Engineering  Record,  February  6,  1915.     Illustrated,  500  words. 

25.  Sewer  Excavation  by  Steam  Shovel  in  Narrow  Streets.     Excavating 
Engineer,  January,  1914.     Illustrated,  1800  words. 

26.  Sewer  Excavation  with  a  Revolving  Shovel.     Excavating  Engineer, 
June,  1914.     Illustrated,  900  words. 

27.  Sewerage   Construction   Work.     Municipal   Journal   and   Engineer, 
May  1,  1907.     Illustrated,  2500  words. 


TRENCH  EXCA  VA  TORS  145 

28.  Some   New  Excavating   Machines.     Engineering   News,    March   16, 
1911.     Illustrated,  2000  words. 

29.  Steam  Shovels  for  Trench  Excavation.     Engineering  News,  November 
7,  1901.     Illustrated,  1400  words. 

30.  A  Storm  Water  Trench  at  La  Grange,   111.     Excavating  Engineer, 
November,  1912.     Illustrated,  1200  words. 

31.  Trench    Excavation    by    Steam    Shovel.     Municipal    Journal    and 
Engineer,  January  4,  1912.     Illustrated,  1800  words. 


CHAPTER  X 
WHEEL  EXCAVATORS 

106.  Preliminary. — There  has  been  a  great  demand,  espe- 
cially during  the  past  decade  (since  1907)  for  a  machine  that 
would  construct  small,  open  ditches  on  reclamation  work.  Most 
types  of  excavators  are  unfitted  on  account  of  size  and  method 
of  operation  to  construct  the  smaller  size  ditches  of  drainage 
and  irrigation  systems,  and  this  condition  has  resulted  in  the 
introduction  of  some  light,  portable  machines,  one  of  which  is 
the  templet  excavator. 


FIG.  75. — Wheel  excavator.     (Courtesy  of  Buckeye  Traction  Ditcher  Co.) 

107.  General  Description. — The  ditcher  consists  of  a  frame 
which  supports  the  power  equipment  on  the  front  end,  and  a 
pivoted  frame-work  containing  the  excavating  wheel  on  the  rear 
end.  The  platform  is  supported  at  the  front  on  an  axle  which  has 
two  broad-tired  steel  wheels,  and  at  the  rear  by  two  caterpillar 
tractors,  which  allow  the  machine  to  operate  in  wet,  soft  soils. 
A  view  of  a  wheel  excavator  is  shown  in  Fig.  75. 

146 


WHEEL  EXCAVATORS 


147 


The  power  may  be  supplied  either  by  a  steam  or  internal 
combustion  engine.  The  earlier  machines  were  supplied  with  the 
former  type  of  engine  but  the  more  recent  machines  are  nearly 
all  equipped  with  gasoline  engines.  These  gasoline  engines  are 
generally  of  the  marine  type  and  made  with  four-cycle  multiple 
cylinders,  ranging  from  20  h.p.  to  90  horse  power.  They  are 
provided  with  high-tension  magneto  and  dual  ignition. 

The  motive  power  is  transmitted  to  the  wheels  either  by 
sprocket-chain  or  bevel-gear  drive. 

The  excavating  equipment  consists  of  the  excavating  wheel 
and  belt  conveyor.  The  wheel  is  an  open  steel  frame,  around 
the  periphery  of  which  are  attached  from  8  to  12  buckets  of 


Fio.  76. — Diagram  of  general  dimensions  of  wheel  excavators.     (Courtesy  of 
Buckeye  Traction  Ditcher  Co.) 

scoop  shape.  At  the  rear  and  near  the  upper  part  of  the  wheel 
is  placed  the  belt  conveyor,  which  projects  out  a  considerable 
distance  either  side  of  the  machine. 

108.  Method  of  Operation. — The  excavating  wheel  revolves 
either  on  a  central  axle  or  anti-friction  wheels  placed  along  its 
rim  and  each  bucket  cuts  out  a  thin  slice  of  earth  which  is  de- 
posited on  the  machine  end  of  the  belt  conveyor,  when  the  bucket 
reaches  the  top  of  the  wheel.  The  operator  gradually  feeds 
the  wheel  into  the  ground  as  the  wheel  revolves.  After  one 
section  has  been  dug  to  the  required  depth,  the  machine  moves 
ahead  several  feet  under  its  own  power  and  another  section  is  dug, 
and  so  on.  The  sizes,  limitations,  and  capacities  of  the  various 
sizes  of  a  well-known  make  of  wheel  excavator  are  given  in  Fig. 
76  and  Table  VIII. 


148    EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


OS 

s 

00 

8 

CD 

2 

CO 

CD 
<N 

x 

100,000 

IS 

I 

$19,300 

<N 

05 

2 

<N 

CO 

CO 

00 

k 

00 

» 

00 

cb 

CD 
05 

cb 

X 

CO 

X 

cb 

* 

£ 

cb 

cb 

eb 
cb 

i 

05 

o  2 

00    00 

O5    i-l 

I 

L_ 

8 

- 

s 

00 
<N 
1     I 

O5 

r 

s 

05 

b 

cb 

CD 

cb 

•s 

k 

I 

$16.300 

CO 

1 

C5 

CO 
<N 

X 

cb 

JS 

2 

O5 

cb 
cb 

2 

cb 

CO 

1 

is 

i 

$15,400 

10 

00 

IN 

00 

b 

CO 

(N 

X 

cb 

2 

00 

cb 

cb 

cb 

1 

I 

88 

o 

9 

„ 

cb 

g 

00 

cb 

00 

S 

X 

CO 
(N 

00 
iH 

•• 

cb 

| 

1  1 

I 

8 

^ 

b 

CO 

3 

CD. 

s 

CO 

s 

CO 
O5 

2 

b 

^ 

1 

S80" 

1 

b 

8 

CO 

CO 

CO 

cb 

i-H 

X 

N 

b. 

CO 

CO 

CO 

O5 

1 

" 

3 

00 

2 

X 

CD 

PH 

cb 

CO 

- 

k 

8 

88 

o 

8 

(N 

5  ^ 

3 

rH 

SO 

TH 

2 

CO 

o 
X 

CO 

O5 

S 

cb 

* 

cb 

I 

8| 

c^"  CD" 

8 

O5 

S 

I 

i 

s 

; 

• 

: 

. 

3 

i 

8 

1 

0 
73 
O 

^5 
6 

I 

O 
."H 
1 

d 

"ft 

<D 

nveyor  end,  H  

£ 

Length  over  all,  A  

Width  over  all,  B  

Height  over  all,  C  

Q 

1 
o 

3 
8 

$ 

Traction  aprons  

•d 
3  1 

m 

1 

Cutting  wheel  diameter,  F  

1 

"s 

a 

1 
§    \ 

0 

1 
1 
o 

3 

Conveyor  belt  widl 

1 
0) 

a 

i 

s 

II 

O,  «g 

3 
1 

H 

WHEEL  EXCAVATORS 


149 


SI 


IS 


88  T3 


I    I 

1       1 


!   I 

3  Mi 


I     I 
1      I 


I  ! 


•O  « 

3  fc 

*  Q 

I 


j?       c 

e        * 

111 

*    a   S 


**    -^      ^ 


og§ 


•S  5 
5  I 


0     « 

fc   « 


150    EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

One  type  of  wheel  excavator  is  convertible,  so  that  by  remov- 
ing the  side  supports,  the  bank  sloping  attachment  is  eliminated 
and  the  machine  becomes  a  trench  excavator.  Table  IX  gives 
the  capacity,  weight,  etc.,  of  the  two  different  sizes  of  this  ex- 
cavator. A  view  of  one  of  these  machines  constructing  a  small 
drainage  channel  is  shown  in  Fig.  77. 


FIG.  77. — Wheel  excavator  constructing  small  ditch.  (Courtesy  ofF.  C.  Austin  Co.) 

109.  Cost  of  Operation. — The  cost  of  operation  depends  on 
the  size  of  the  job,  the  size  and  make  of  excavator,  the  character 
and  condition  of  the  soil,  the  efficiency  of  the  operator,  etc. 

With  a  machine  which  digs  a  ditch  with  a  top  width  of  4 
ft.  6  in.,  an  average  depth  of  3  ft.  6  in.,  bottom  width  rounded 
to  12  in.,  and  side  slopes  of  about  ^  :  1,  the  average  cost  of  opera- 
tion for  a  10-hr,  day  would  be  about  as  follows: 


OPERATING  COST  OF  WHEEL  EXCAVATOR 


Labor: 


1  operator  @  $125  per  month $5 . 00 

1  assistant 3 . 00 

2  laborers  @  $2.00 4.00 

1  team  and  driver. .  3 . 50 


Total  labor  cost,  per  day $15 . 50 


WHEEL  EXCA  VA  TORS  1 5 1 

Fuel  and  Supplies: 

30  gal.  gasoline  @  25ff $7 . 50 

Oil,  waste,  and  supplies 1 . 50 


Total  fuel  and  supplies $9.00 

General  and  Overhead  Charges: 

Depreciation  (12^  per  cent,  of  $6000) l $5.00 

Interest  (6  per  cent,  of  $6000)1 2.40 

Repairs  and  incidentals 4 . 60 


Total  general  and  overhead  expense $12.00 


Total  operating  cost  per  10-hour  day $36 . 50 

Average  progress  per  day  (ft.) 2300 

Average  daily  excavation  (cu.  yd.) 800 

Unit  cost  of  wheel  excavation,  per  cu.  yd., 

$36.50  -^800  =  $0.046 

110.  Resume. — The  wheel  excavator  is  the  most  practical 
form  of  excavator  for  small  ditches  where  the  soil  conditions  are 
favorable.  This  machine  cannot  excavate  economically  very 
hard,  dense  soils,  or  where  large  quantities  of  stumps,  boulders, 
and  other  obstructions  are  present.  In  glacial  clay,  alluvium, 
marl,  and  similar  soils,  this  excavator  operates  very  smoothly 
and  satisfactorily. 

In  irrigation  and  drainage  systems,  where  the  smaller  ditches 
run  full  only  a  small  part  of  each  year,  a  large  amount  of  silt, 
debris,  and  vegetation  gradually  accumulates.  These  obstruc- 
tions in  the  course  of  a  few  years  will  gradually  fill  up  and  greatly 
reduce  the  carrying  capacity  of  the  channels.  Hence,  it  is  nec- 
essary to  construct  the  smaller  channels  to  as  near  true  grade  and 
cross-section  as  is  practicable.  In  open,  porous  soils,  such  as 
occur  often  on  irrigation  projects,  it  becomes  necessary  to  line 
the  ditches  with  some  impervious  material  such  as  concrete  to 
prevent  large  seepage  losses.  In  such  cases  it  is  a  great  advan- 
tage to  excavate  a  channel,  which  is  to  be  subsequently  lined, 
with  a  true  grade  and  smooth  side  slopes,  so  that  the  form  work 
for  the  concrete  may  be  set  without  the  extra  labor  and  expense 
of  trimming  'and  shaping  the  excavation. 

111.  Bibliography. — For  further  information,  the  reader  should 
consult  Articles  105  and  221,  pages  143  and  330. 

1  Based  on  150  working  days  a  year  and  an  8-year  life. 


CHAPTER  XI 
CABLEWAYS 

112.  Preliminary. — The   tower    cableway   is   an    excavating, 
hoisting  and  conveying  device,  first  utilized  about  1875,  in  the 
slate  quarries  of  eastern  Pennsylvania.     For  a  period  of  about 
20    years,    the    cableway    was    used    largely    in    quarry    and 
logging  operations.     Recently,  this  machine  has  been  adapted 
successfully  to  the  conveying  of  materials  on  construction  work, 
the  excavation  of  the  lighter  and  softer  soils,  the  hoisting  and 
conveying  of  the  harder  soils  excavated  by  other  machinery, 
the  excavation  of  sand  and  gravel  pits,  etc. 

There  are  two  general  classes  of  cableway  excavators;  the 
drag-line  cableway  and  the  fall-line  cableway. 

A.  DRAG-LINE  CABLEWAYS 

113.  General  Description. — The  drag-  or  slack-line  cableway 
excavator  was  developed  and  used  successfully  several  years 
ago  on  the  Chicago  Drainage  Canal  and  more  recently  on  the 
New  York  State  Barge  Canal.     This  machine  was  termed  the 
tower  excavator  from  its  principal  part  which  was  a  movable 
tower.     See  Fig.  78. 

The  essential  feature?  of  this  machine  are,  the  tower  or  mast 
which  may  be  either  fixed  or  movable,  the  operating  equipment 
and  the  excavating  equipment. 

The  mast  is  used  in  a  quarry  or  pit  where  one  end  of  the  ma- 
chine may  be  fixed.  The  height  of  the  mast  should  be  sufficient 
to  give  a  fall  of  from  10  to  15  ft.  in  each  100  feet.  For  heights  of 
50  ft.  or  less,  a  pole  or  tree  may  be  used,  while  for  greater  lengths, 
a  mast  of  built-up  lumber  or  steel  is  desirable.  These  structures 
must  be  supported  by  guy  lines  anchored  back  to  the  ground. 

When  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  movable  support2  as  in  the 
operation  of  a  cableway  excavator,  along  a  pit  or  channel,  a 
tower  should  be  used.  The  tower  is  a  framed,  timber  structure, 
the  height  of  which  is  determined  by  the  width  of  the  area  to  be 

152 


CABLE  WAYS 


153 


excavated.  The  tower  rests  on  a  platform  or  car,  which  is  braced 
by  overhead,  horizontal-chord,  combination  trusses.  This  car  is 
mounted  on  four  solid,  double-flanged,  cast-steel  wheels,  gener- 
ally about  12  to  16  in.  in  diameter  and  with  4-in.  treads.  The 
wheels  run  on  a  track,  which  consists  of  80-90-lb.  rails  spiked  to 
cross  ties  bolted  to  30-ft.  planks.  The  car  and  tower  are  moved 
about  by  a  cable  which  passes  over  a  sheave  on  the  car  and  thence 


FIG.  7S.— Tr 


to  a  "dead  man"  or  anchorage  placed  at  a  suitable  point  ahead  of 
the  car,  and  then  back  to  a  drum  on  the  engine.  The  tower  is 
braced  to  the  car  by  cables  which  extend  from  the  top  of  the 
tower  to  the  rear  corners  of  the  car. 

The  power  equipment  is  placed  near  the  mast  or  on  the  rear 
of  the  car  and  consists  of  a  vertical  boiler  and  a  double-drum 
hoisting  engine.  The  engine  is  generally  of  the  vertical,  reversi- 


154     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

ble  type,  with  double  cylinders  and  equipped  with  friction-clutch 
control  for  the  drums.  When  electric  current  is  available  the 
cableway  can  be  efficiently  operated  by  a  two-drum  electrically 
driven  hoist. 

The  early  type  of  excavating  equipment  consisted  of  a  two-line 
scraper  bucket.  At  the  rear  of  the  bucket  is  a  frame  carrying 
two  sheaves  at  right  angles  to  the  cutting  edge,  which  is  strongly 
reinforced  and  provided  with  teeth  for  the  excavation  of  hard 
material.  See  Fig.  79.  On  the  bottom  of  the  bucket  are  two 


FIG.  79. — Scraper  bucket  of  tower  excavator. 

curved  shoes  or  shims.  The  front  of  the  bucket  is  connected  to 
the  drag-line  drum  of  the  engine  by  a  cable  which  passes  over  a 
sheave  suspended  on  the  front  side  of  the  tower  about  one-fourth 
of  its  height  from  the  base.  Another  cable  extends  from  the 
hoisting  drum  of  the  engine  over  a  sheave  at  the  top  of  the  tower, 
then  between  the  sheaves  on  the  bail  of  the  bucket  and  thence 
to  an  anchorage,  at  the  far  side  of  the  excavation. 

114.  Method  of  Operation. — The  bucket  is  lowered  over  the 
hoist  line  by  allowing  it  to  slide  down  the  cable  by  its  own 
weight,  to  the  far  side  of  the  cut.  Then  the  bucket  is  loaded  by 
pulling  it  toward  the  tower  by  winding  up  the  drag-line  cable. 


CABLEWAYS 


155 


When  the  spoil  bank  is  reached,  the  hoisting  cable  is  raised  and 
the  bucket  is  overturned  and  dumped.  The  bucket  is  returned 
to  the  excavation  by  still  further  tightening  the  hoisting  cable 
and  releasing  the  drag-line  cable,  whereby  the  busket  rises  and 


FIG.  80. — Diagrammatic  view  of  drag-line  cableway.     (Courtesy  of  Sauerman 

Bros.) 

slides  back  to  the  starting  point.  Where  a  tower  of  65  ft.  in 
height  was  used,  a  reach  of  210  ft.  from  the  far  side  of  the  ex- 
cavation to  the  near  side  of  the  spoil  bank  was  attained  with 
efficiency  of  operation.  A  bucket  of  2  cu.  yd.  capacity,  made 


Dump  Block 


FIG.  81. — Shearer  and  Mayer  drag-line  cableway  bucket. 

an  average  output  of  3  cu.  yd.  and  was  operated  at  the  rate  of 
4  cu.  yd.  per  minute. 

A  recent  form  of  excavating  equipment  is  shown  in  Figs. 
80  and  81.  The  bucket  is  lowered  into  the  excavation  by  slack- 
ening the  cables.  It  is  then  drawn  forward  until  filled  when 
the  track  cable  is  tightened  and  the  drag  line  is  drawn  in.  The 


156     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

bucket  is  thus  lifted  and  pulled  in  to  the  dumping  point  simultane- 
ously. When  the  bucket  reaches  the  dumping  point,  a  block 
running  on  the  track  cable  is  arrested  by  a  stop  clamped  on  the 
cable.  The  pull  on  the  load  chains  is  then  transferred  to  the  dump 
chains  connected  with  the  rear  of  the  bucket  which  is  dumped 
by  the  continuous  forward  pull  on  the  load  cable. 

A  simple  form  of  excavator  which  came  into  use  about  9 
years  ago  (1910)  is  shown  in  Fig.  82.     The  peculiar  feature  of 


FIG.  82. — Cableway    excavator    operating  at  gravel  pit.       (Courtesy  of 
Indianapolis    Cable   Excavator   Co.) 

this  bucket  is  the  latch  and  engaged  arms  on  the  front  end.  When 
the  arms  of  the  latch  come  into  contact  with  the  stop  on  the 
track  cable,  at  the  dumping  place,  the  hook  is  disengaged  and  the 
latch  line  takes  the  load.  As  the  cables  are  slacked  by  the  op- 
erator, the  front  end  of  the  bucket  swings  down,  the  weight 
pulling  on  the  latch  line  causing  the  bucket  to  press  against 
the  stop  and  the  bucket  is  discharged.  If  the  load  line  is  en- 
tirely released,  the  bucket  starts  backward  and  the  bucket  swings 
to  a  vertical  position,  discharging  the  load  in  a  mass. 

A  crew  of  from  4  to  9  men  is  required  to  operate  a  tower  exca- 
vator, depending  on  the  magnitude  of  the  job,  the  character  of 
the  material  to  be  excavated,  etc.  Under  average  conditions, 


CABLEWAYS 


157 


there  will  be  required  an  operator,  a  fireman,  a  team  and  driver, 
and  three  laborers.  The  operator  is  stationed  near  the  hoist, 
and  where  a  tower  is  used  stands  on  a  platform  on  its  rear  side 
and  at  about  one-third  its  height.  He  controls  the  machinery 
by  a  set  of  levers  and  brakes  and  has  an  unobstructed  view  of  the 
work.  The  fireman  keeps  the  boiler  and  machinery  supplied  with 
fuel,  water  and  oil,  and  in  proper  working  condition.  The  team 
and  driver  haul  fuel,  water  and  supplies  to  the  work.  The 
laborers  move  the  track  and  perform  general  service  about  the 
work. 

115.  Double-tower  Excavator. — A  double-tower  excavator 
was  used  some  years  ago  on  a  section  of  the  Chicago  Drainage 
Canal.  A  diagrammatic  view  of  this  excavator  is  shown  in  Fig. 


No.2 


Eng.  Contg. 


Plan 


Fia.  83. — Diagram  of  double  tower  excavator.     (Courtesy  of  Engineering  and 

Contracting.) 

83.  As  will  be  noted  from  the  plan,  the  inclined  booms  were 
so  designed  that  a  straight  line  from  the  apex  to  either  tower  to 
the  point  of  the  opposite  boom,  clears  the  side  of  the  tower. 
This  allowed  each  bucket  to  clear  the  tower  and  empty  directly  on 
the  adjacent  spoil  bank. 

A  double-drum  hoisting  engine  was  located  on  the  side  of  the 
platform  of  each  tower.  Each  bucket  was  operated  by  a  drag 
line  and  a  hoisting  line.  The  buckets  were  loaded,  dumped,  and 
returned  to  the  excavation  as  is  described  above  for  the  single- 
tower  excavator.  By  changing  the  location  of  the  suspended 
sheaves  the  position  of  the  bucket  in  digging  was  altered  so  as  to 


158    EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

reach  the  entire  half  width  of  the  canal  prism.  This  machine, 
in  the  excavation  of  a  canal  section  having  a  bottom  width 
of  26  ft.,  side  slopes  of  2:1,  and  an  average  depth  of  27  ft., 
through  a  clay  soil,  did  very  satisfactory  work. 

116.  Cost  of  Operation. — The  following  may  be  taken  as 
an  estimate  of  the  cost  of  operation  of  a  single-tower  excavator, 
equipped  with  a  75-ft.  tower,  controlling  a  250-ft.  width  ex- 
cavation, a  2-yd.  scraper  bucket,  and  a  10  X  12-in.  double- 
drum,  vertical  hoisting  engine.  The  excavated  material  would 
be  dumped  upon  a  spoil  bank  at  the  tower  side  of  the  excavation 
and  into  wagons  or  dump  cars  by  means  of  a  loading  platform. 
A  train  of  four  5-yd.  dump  cars  would  be  loaded  in  about  15 
minutes.  An  average  output  of  600  cu.  yd.  would  be  attained  in 
the  excavation  of  a  glacial  clay  under  average  working  conditions 
during  a  10-hr,  working  day: 

OPERATING  COST  OF  SINGLE-TOWER  EXCAVATOR 

Labor: 

1  engineer $4.00 

1  fireman. . .' 3.00 

1  team  and  driver 3 . 50 

3  laborers  @  $2. 00  each..  6.00 


Total  labor  cost,  per  day $16. 50 

Fuel  and  Supplies: 

%  ton  of  coal  @  $4.00 $3.50 

Oil,  and  waste 0 . 50 


Total  fuel  and  supplies $4 . 00 

General  and  Overhead  Expenses: 

Depreciation  (10  per  cent,  on  $2000) 1 $1 .40 

Interest  (6  per  cent,  of  $2000)1 0.80 

Repairs,  and  incidentals 5 . 50 


Total  general  expense $7 . 70 


Total  cost  of  operation  for  10-hr,  day $28 . 20 

Average  excavation  per  10-hr,  day  (cu.  yd.) 600 

Unit  cost  of  single-tower  excavation,  per 

cu.  yd.,  $28.20  -^  600  =  00.047 

Based  on  a  10-year  life  and  150  working  days  per  year. 


CABLEWAYS  159 

117.  Field  of  Usefulness. — The  tower  excavator  was  originally 
used  in  canal  excavation  where  the  cross-section  was  very  wide 
with  a  comparatively  shallow  depth.     When  the  top  width  of  a 
channel  is  over  80  ft.,  it  becomes  necessary  to  use  drag-line 
excavators  in  pairs,  one  along  each  bank,  or  a  floating  dipper 
dredge  which  shifts  from  one  side  of  the  channel  to  the  other. 
The  tower  excavator  can  cut  the  full  width  of  the  channel  at  one 
set-up  and  complete  the  section  as  it  moves  along.     This  type 
of  excavator  could  not  be  used  satisfactorily  in  very  wet  soils, 
or  where  rock  occurred  in  great  quantity. 

The  tower  excavator  is  especially  efficient  in  the  excavation 
of  large,  shallow  areas  such  as  reservoirs,  athletic  fields,  and  the 
basements  of  large  buildings.  In  such  cases,  it  might  be  advis- 
able to  have  the  tower  or  towers  move  over  curved  tracks;  the 
center  of  curvature  being  the  point  of  anchorage  of  the  hoist 
cable. 

Quarries,  surface  mines,  and  gravel  pits  can  be  economically 
stripped  with  a  tower  excavator,  when  the  area  covered  is  suffi- 
cient to  warrant  the  installation  of  the  plant  and  the  soil  condi- 
tions are  favorable  to  uniform  scraper-bucket  operation. 

B.  FALL-LINE  CABLEWAY 

118.  Preliminary. — The  fall-line  or  suspension  cableway  may 
be  inclined  or  horizontal.     The  latter  is  the  type  used  on  construc- 
tion and  excavation  work  and  will  be  described  in  this  chapter. 
Cableways  are  used  for  the  transportation  of  materials  across  a 
valley  or  stream,  the  hoisting  and  removal  of  excavated  mate- 
rial, the  transporting  and  placing  of  stone,  concrete,  etc.,  in 
structures  and  the  excavation  of  foundations,  pits,  quarries,  etc. 

119.  General  Description. — The  essential  features  of  a  cable- 
way  are  the  towers,  the  power  equipment  and  the  operating 
equipment. 

The  terminals  of  the  cableway  are  generally  wooden-framed 
towers  which  may  be  arranged  in  the  following  manner: 

(a)  Two  fixed  towers. 

(6)  One  tower  fixed  and  the  other  mounted  on  a  barge  in  water 
or  traveling  on  a  circular  track. 

(c)  Two  movable  towers  traveling  on  parallel  tracks.  Fig. 
84  shows  one  terminal  of  two  cableways  used  on  the  construction 
of  a  large  masonry  dam. 

The  power  equipment  consists  of  a  boiler  and  an  engine. 


160    EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

The  boiler  is  generally  of  the  vertical,  tubular  type,  and 
equipped  with  the  necessary  accessories  for  operation  at  a  pres- 
sure-of  about  100  pounds. 

The  engine  is  a  two-drum,  double-cylinder  machine,  fitted 
with  reversible  link  motion.  The  drums  are  of  the  friction- 
brake  type;  one  for  the  hoisting  rope,  and  the  other  for  the  end- 


FIG.  84. — Cableways    on    construction    of    dam. 

Mfg.  Co.)  *1 


(Courtesy  of   the  Lidgerwood 


less,  traversing  rope  or  cable.     The  drums  can  be  operated  simul- 
taneously or  independently. 

The  cableway  may  be  operated  also  by  either  compressed  air 
or  electric  power.  The  latter  method  has  been  recently  used  with 
great  success  on  several  large  contracts;  the  Panama  Canal 
and  several  Reclamation  Service  projects.  Either  direct-  or 
alternating-current  apparatus  may  be  used.  For  the  former, 
the  type  of  motor  is  the  interpolated  pole  series  railway  for 
550-volt  direct-current  circuit  with  current  limit  automatic  and 


CABLE  WAYS 


161 


hand  control  and  for  the  latter  an  alternating-current  motor- 
wound  for  three-phase,  60-cycle,  440  volts  with  magnetic  control. 
The  operating  equipment  comprises  a  traveler,  the  tubs,  buck- 
ets or  skips,  and  the  cables.  The  main  cable  is  made  of  crucible 
steel  and  of  a  diameter  depending  upon  the  span,  load,  elevation, 
and  type  of  work.  It  passes  over  sheaves  and  saddles  on  the  tops 
of  the  towers  and  is  anchored  behind  them.  This  cable  is  the 
track  over  which  the  carrier  travels.  The  hoisting  and  traversing 


FIG.  85. — High  speed  cable  way  carriage.     (Courtesy  of  S.  Flory  Mfg.  Co.) 

ropes  are  crucible  steel  cables  of  from  %  in.  to  %  in.  in  di- 
ameter and  extend  from  their  respective  drums  on  the  engine  over 
the  sheaves  at  the  tops  of  the  towers  and  thence  to  the  carrier.  A 
high-speed  carrier  used  on  the  construction  of  the  Panama  Canal 
locks  is  shown  in  Fig.  85. 

120.  Method  of  Operation. — For  trench  excavation,  a  cableway 
having  a  length  or  span  of  from  200  ft.  to  400  ft.  is  generally 
used.  The  length  of  excavation  will  be  about  50  ft.  shorter 
than  the  distance  between  towers. 

The  labor  crew  required  consists  of  an  engineer,  a  fireman, 
a  signalman  and  two  or  more  laborers.  The  engineer  operates 
11 


162    EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

the  engine  and  has  general  charge  of  the  work.  The  fireman 
provides  the  boiler  with  fuel  and  water,  and  looks  after  the  oiling 
of  the  machinery.  The  signalman  signals  to  the  engineer  for 
the  raising  and  lowering  of  the  bucket  or  tub.  The  laborers  are 
used  in  filling  and  in  dumping  the  tub,  and  in  general  service 
about  the  job. 

The  bucket  is  lowered  into  the  trench,  filled  by  the  shovelers, 
and  then  raised  above  the  excavation  by  the  operation  of  the 
hoisting  drum,  which  is  thrown  out  of  gear  and  held  by  a  brake. 


FIG.  86. — Cableway  excavator  digging  a  sewer  trench. 

The  traversing  line  is  then  operated  and  the  carrier  moved  in 
either  direction  until  the  bucket  is  over  the  place  for  dumping. 
Then  the  bucket  is  lowered  by  means  of  the  brake  band  on  the 
hoisting  drum.  The  material  may  be  used  for  back  fill  in  a 
section  of  trench  where  the  pipe  is  laid,  or  dumped  into  a  spoil 
bank  or  into  wagons  for  removal  to  a  distant  place  of  disposal. 
A  small  crane  or  derrick  may  be  used  to  advantage,  adjacent  to 
the  excavation,  for  the  transfer  of  buckets  from  the  cableway  to 
the  dumping  board  or  hopper. 

121.  Cost  of  Operation. — A  typical  case  of  sewer-trench  con- 
struction will  be  considered  in  the  following  statement  of  the 
cost  of  excavation  with  a  cableway. 


CABLEWAYS  163 

The  trench  is  12  ft.  wide  and  with  an  average  depth  of  20 
feet.  The  soil  varies  from  a  surface  layer  of  loam  of  2  ft.  depth, 
through  a  clay  substratum  of  8  ft.,  to  a  hard  gravel  deposit. 
The  machine  has  two  30-ft.  towers  placed  300  ft.  apart  and  is 
equipped  with  1-yd.  tubs  or  buckets.  See  Fig.  86.  Bracing 
and  sheeting  were  carried  on  at  the  same  time  as  the  excavation, 
and  the  sewer  construction  followed  closely  to  allow  for  back 
filling  at  one  end  of  the  section  with  the  material  from  the  other 
end. 

Following  is  an  estimate  of  the  cost  of  excavation  under  average 
working  conditions,  during  a  10-hr,  day.  A  crew  of  30  men 
are  required  to  pick  and  shovel  the  material  into  the  buckets 
and  the  average  daily  output  will  be  taken  as  300  cubic  yards. 

OPERATING   COST   OF   TOWEU   CABLEWAY 
Labor: 

1  foreman ...  $4 . 00 

1  engineer 5.00 

1  fireman 3.00 

1  signal 2.50 

2  dumpers  @  $2.00  each 4.00 

30  laborers  @  $2 . 00  each .  .  60 . 00 


Total  labor  expense,  per  day $78 . 50 

Fuel  and  Supplies: 

%  ton  coal  @  $4.00 $2.00 

Oil,  waste,  etc 1 .00 

Repairs 1 . 50 


Total  fuel  and  supplies $4 . 50 

General  and  Overhead  Expenses: 

Interest  (6  per  cent,  of  $8000)1 $2.40 

Depreciation  (10  per  cent,  of  $8000)' 4.00 

Incidental  expenses 2 . 60 


Total  general  expense $9 . 00 


Total  cost  of  operation  for  a  10-hr,  day $92 . 00 

Total  output  for  a  10-hr,  day  (cu.  yd.) 300 

Unit  cost  of  tower  cableway  excavation,  per  cu.  yd.  of 

material  handled,  $92.00  -j-  300  = 0.30 

Unit  cost  of  hoisting,  conveying,  and  dumping,  (excluding 
pick  and  shovel  labor),  per  cu.yd.  of  material  hand- 
led, $29.00  -H  300  = $0.097 

1  Based  upon  200  working  days  in  a  year  and  a  10-year  life. 


164     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

122.  Resume. — The    cableway    excavator    has    a   wide   and 
important  field  of  usefulness.     It  is  especially  efficient  in  the 
handling  of  materials  across  large  waterways,  valleys,  quarries, 
pits,  etc.,  where  surface  transportation  would  be  difficult  and 
very  expensive.     In  the  excavation  of  large  quarries,  gravel  pits, 
surface  mines,  dam  foundations,  reservoirs,  etc.,  the  cableway 
can  be  used  as  a  tower  excavator  directly  or  to  convey  skips, 
tubs,  or  buckets  which  contain  the  material  previously  excavated 
by  other  machines.     The  same  cableway  can  of  course  be  used 
for  the  transportation  of  concrete,  stone,  timber,  and  other  build- 
ing materials,  as  well  as  tools,  men,  etc.,  during  the  construction 
work  which  follows  the  excavation. 

The  cableway  can  be  satisfactorily  used  in  trench  excavation 
when  the  excavation  is  of  large  extent,  generally  over  6  ft.  in 
width  and  10  ft.  in  depth.  With  the  use  of  this  type  of  excava- 
tor, the  weight  of  the  machinery  is  largely  concentrated  at  the 
ends  of  the  trench,  the  cable  is  at  a  considerable  height  above 
the  work  and  allows  space  for  storage,  handling  of  materals,  etc. 
The  principal  objection  to  the  use  of  the  cableway  on  trench  work 
is  its  lack  of  lateral  control.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  avoid  the 
swinging  of  the  buckets  during  the  raising  and  lowering,  and  this 
is  liable  to  result  in  some  displacement '  of  and  damage  to  the 
sheeting,  forms,  etc. 

123.  Bibliography. — The   following   books   and  articles  con- 
tain further  information: 

Books 

1.  "The  Chicago  Main  Drainage  Channel,"  by  C.  S.  HILL,  published  in 
1896  by  Engineering  News  Publishing  Company,  New  York.     129  pages, 
105  figures,  8  in.  X  11  in. 

2.  "Excavating  Machinery,"  by  J.  O.  WRIGHT.     Bulletin  published  in 
1904  by  Department  of  Drainage  Investigations  of  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Magazine  Articles 

1.  Digging  Gravel  from  River  Bed  by  a  Cableway  Excavator.     Contractor, 
August  15,  1915.     Illustrated,  1500  words. 

2.  Double  Dragline  Cableway  Excavator  for  Canal  Work.     Engineering 
Record,  January  13,  1914.     Illustrated,  700  words. 

3.  Dragline  Cableway  is  an  Effective  Tool  for  Sand  and  Gravel  Plants. 
Engineering  Record,  June  5,  1915.     Illustrated,  3500  words. 

4.  Dragline  Excavation  Methods  in  Construction  of  Winnipeg  Aqueduct. 
Engineering  &  Contracting,  March  21,   1917.     Illustrated,  1000  words. 


I 

C  A  BLEW  AYS  165 

5.  Dragline  Excavator  Does  Speedy  Work  in  Dredging  Channel.     Engi- 
neering Record,  February  13,  1915.     Illustrated,  300  words. 

6.  Excavation   for    the    Arrowrock    Dam,    Idaho.     Engineering    News, 
July  17,  1913.     Illustrated,  4500  words. 

7.  Excavation  for  Foundation  of  Elephant  Butte   Dam.     Engineering 
News,  January  14,  1915.     Illustrated,  3500  words. 

8.  Machines  for  Building  Levees.     Engineering  News,   May  25,   1916. 
Illustrated,  2500  words. 

9.  Portable    Dragline   Cableway   Excavator  for   Concrete    Aggregates. 
Engineering  Record,  November  15,  1913.     Illustrated,  1300  words. 

10.  Yale  "Bowl"   Construction  Finished  in  Time  for  Harvard  Game 
Today.     Engineering     Record,     November     21,     1914.     Illustrated,  3000 
words. 


.      CHAPTER  XII 
DIPPER  DREDGES 

124.  Classification. — Floating    excavators    are    those    types 
which  move  along  a  stream  like  a  boat.     They  are  classified 
as  to  construction  and  method  of  excavation  of  material,  as 
follows:  dipper  dredges,  ladder  dredges  and  hydraulic  dredges. 

Dipper  dredges  will  be  discussed  in  this  chapter  and  the  other 
two  classes  in  succeeding  chapters. 

125.  Preliminary. — Dipper  dredges  may  be  classified  as  to 
field  of  work  as  follows:  dredges  for  the  excavation  of  drainage 
and  irrigation  channels,   dredges  with  narrow  hulls  and  side 
floats  for  the  excavation  and  maintenance  of  channels,   and 
marine  dredges  for  river  and  harbor  improvements. 

These  three  classes  comprise  many  types  and  sizes  of  dredges 
depending  upon  the  service  for  which  the  machines  are  intended. 
The  general  details  of  construction  and  method  of  operation 
are  very  similar  for  all  the  tyes. 

126.  General  Description. — The  type  of  dredge  which  is  best 
known   and   commonly   used   for   the   excavation   of   drainage 
ditches  is  the  floating-dipper  dredge.     The  principal  parts  of 
a  dipper  dredge  are  the  hull  or  boat,  the  power  equipment,  the 
hoisting  engines,  the  swinging  engines,  A-frame,  spuds,  boom 
and  dipper.     All  of  these  parts  are  used  in  some  form  in  every 
dredge.     Each  manufacturer  uses  the  same  principles  of  opera- 
tion   but   varies   the  details  of  construction  to  suit  his  ideas 
and    generally    claims    therefor    certain    points  of  superiority. 
Figure  87  shows  the  principal  parts  of  a  floating-dipper  dredge 
with  vertical  spuds  and  Fig.  88  those  of  a  dredge  with  bank 
spuds.     It  is  the  general  custom  to  set  up  the  machinery  of  each 
dredge  complete  on  the  testing  floor  of  a  factory  and  to  give  it 
a  thorough  test  before  it  is  shipped  to  the  purchaser.     This 
test  is  of  value  in  so  far  as  it  assembles  all  of  the  parts  and 
proves  their  ability  to  work  in  coordination  up  to  certain  stand- 

166 


DIPPER  DREDGES 


167 


168    EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


DIPPER  DREDGES  169 

ard  requirements.  However,  as  such  a  test  is  conducted  under 
the  most  favorable  conditions,  with  good  fuel,  pure  water,  stable 
foundations,  light  and  uniformly  applied  loads,  it  does  not  show 
how  the  machinery  will  stand  up  under  the  actual  conditions 
of  low-grade  fuel,  impure  water,  unstable  foundations,  and 
vibratory  and  repeated  loads.  The  only  satisfactory  method  to 
become  acquainted  with  the  weak  as  well  as  the  strong  points  of 
any  piece  of  machinery  is  to  give  it  a  severe  test  or  series  of  tests 
under  actual  working  conditions. 

HULL 

The  hull  or  boat  is  generally  built  of  wood  and  of  such  dimen- 
sions as  the  size  of  the  machinery,  length  of  boom,  size  of  dipper, 
and  the  width  of  the  ditch  may  require.  If  practicable  the 
width  of  the  dredge  should  be  nearly  the  width  of  the  ditch 
so  that  the  stability  of  the  whole  dredge  may  be  enhanced  by  the 
use  of  the  bank  spuds.  In  the  construction  of  ditches,  the  top 
width  of  which  exceeds  60  ft.,  it  is  not  practicable  to  use  bank 
spuds.  The  width  of  the  hull  depends  solely  on  the  size  of  the 
machinery  to  be  used,  the  length  of  the  boom,  and  the  size  of 
the  dipper.  The  width  of  the  hull  of  a  dredge  using  bank  spuds 
is  generally  made  less  than  that  of  a  machine  using  vertical 
spuds.  It  is  evident  that  the  tendency  of  the  hull  of  a  dredge 
to  tip  sideways,  as  the  boom  is  swung  to  one  side,  will  depend 
on  the  distance  that  the  dipper  is  from  the  center  of  the  hull  or 
upon  the  length  of  the  boom.  Hence,  the  width  of  the  hull  should 
bear  some  relation  to  the  length  of  the  boom.  When  bank  spuds 
are  used  the  width  of  hull  is  generally  made  about  one-half 
the  length  of  the  boom,  while  with  vertical  spuds  the  hull  width  is 
generally  made  about  five-eighths  of  the  length  of  the  boom. 
See  Tables  X  and  XI  on  pages  170  to  172.  The  length  of  the  hull 
must  be  sufficient  to  provide  suitable  space  for  the  boiler, 
the  machinery,  "  A  "-frame  and  boom,  but  principally  it  must 
provide  sufficient  stability  to  balance  the  weight  of  the  boom 
and  dipper  in  their  various  positions.  The  depth  of  the  hull 
must  be  built  to  furnish  sufficient  displacement,  but  with  as 
light  draft  as  possible  so  as  to  float  in  shallow  water.  The  early 
practice  in  dredge  building  was  to  make  the  hull  wider  on  top 
than  on  the  bottom,  thus  giving  the  sides  a  slope  which  would 
partially  conform  to  the  side  slopes  of  the  ditch.  However, 
this  involves  extra  labor  in  construction  with  no  material  benefit, 


170    EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


w 

>bfi 
g 

W  T3  ^ 


oo 


O 

2-^  a 


Swi 
en 


iOOiOOO(NOO(Nt^^HOCOr-iCD(»COO5 
O500CO<N<N05O5COCOr^oOOOl^COCO>0 


O5O5COCOOOOOOOOOOOCOCOOOOOOQOOOO 

XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX 

PSOSOPOPCOOOCOGO 


u 


(N 


(N    (N    (N    (N 


I       I 
(N    (N 


OJ 


<N    <N    <N    <N    <N    <N    <N 

SSxxxxxxx 

X  X  ^N  ^^  ^^  ^^  ^^  VN  ^'N 

c^c^ooooooo 
I     I     I     I     I     I     I     I     I 


X  X  X  X  X 

O5    05    05    05    05 

cUcUc!, 


COOOOOCOOOt^t>-t^t~t^t>-t--t^N-t>t- 

XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX 

OCO<NOOOCD-*(MOCOCO-*(NOOOCO 
lO^^-^COCOCOCOCOlNCOCOCOeOCvllN 

XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX 

oooooooooo»o>ooooo 

(NINOOO05O505OS05000000COCOOO 


gOOtOOtOOtOOtOtOO^OOtO 
O500t>»l>»CDcOiOiOT^OcOtOiO^ 

I     »Ot^COO>Oi-it^COO5iO»-it-»COO5 
iTJt>-COCOCD«OiOrflT}<CO«O»O^Tt'CO 


CO  CO  CO  <N  (N  (N 


V  ^  ^  «?  ^ 

•-•*<  (N  O  CO  CO 
IN  (N  (N  ^H  j-l 


§o  o  to 
OS  CO  t^* 


35 


Tj<<N<N(N<N<N<N(N<N<N<N 


DIPPER  DREDGES 


171 


£= 

3  3 


.Is 

tea 
.S'S 


l 


n 

Its 


r-t~t-t-i-XXX§§5§§£ 

X  X  X  X  X  £  £  £  '3  -  '5  '5  '5  '5 


co  co  co  co 


00    00    00 

,H^H__,*5iOooooaoooaoXXX 


xxxxxxxxxx 

oo  op  op  op  oo  op  oo 


CM    CM    CM    CM    CM 


XXXXXXXXXXXXXX 

CMOOOCO»«<OOCO»«<"*CMOCMOaO 
COWCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCM-^ 

XXXXXXXXXXXXXX 

iO»OiOOQOl"lO'O 
cOcOcOcocO^iOtO 


>o  o  o  o 
-    t-  1^  t* 


iOQ«OO«O"5O"5O»OCI 

22TT77TJJJ7 

^^COCOCOCCCOCCCOCOCM 


OOCO^CMO-'J'CMOCMOOSOOJOO 


CMOOOCOOOOCOOOcO»OCO»O-t< 

oo«S22S32IcJ3S^ 


10    O   >O    >0    O    "3    O 


172    EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


PQ 

a  . 


o 


^ 


•a-ss 


. 


1 


<N7 

o  o 

§0 
o 


^^^ooooooooooooooooooooco 
XXXXXXXXXXXXXX 

J2S5I? I2S5S5SS 


xxxxxxxx 


OQOOOOt^t^t^t^t^-l^-t^t^-t^t^t^ 

xxxxxxxxxxxxxx 
xxxxxxxxxxxxxx 

§OOOOOOO»O«5>COOO 
OOO5OSOOSO5GOOOOOOOCOOO 


?3§ 


S  S  §  3  S  8 


DIPPER  DREDGES 


173 


p    s 

oS§ 


M-feet  lumber 
for  hull 


If 


II 


•§ 


g§8 

<N    »N    IN 


t^t^r^t»t*xXXc   c   e   c   c   c 

X  X  X  X  X  N£  v*  VN  • 2  . 2  . 2  . 2  . 2  . 5 

mnmllllll 


ooooo 


00   00   00 

ooooooooooooXXX 

XXXXXXXXXXX^^«N« 

^/\  **>.  ^\ 


GOooQor»t»r»coco 

MCIMCIMININC^IN 


xxxxxxxxxxxxxx 

WNN-H'-'<N-H^I'H-Hl-ll-l-H<-l 

xxxxxxxxxxxxxx 

iO*OOOOiOiOkOOOOlO*O|O 
t^t^t^t^t^cOcOCOcDcCcO1^^^ 


'O'CO'CO'CC^'O 

po^corowco 


U5O1OO>O»OO>OO'OM«5 

SS^^co^^eo^www 


^xssxs:* 


174    EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

and  it  is  now  the  universal  practice  to  build  hulls  with  vertical 
sides.  The  dimensions  of  the  hulls  of  various-sized  dredges  are 
given  in  Tables  X  and  XI  on  pages  170  to  172.  These  tables 
were  compiled  by  the  Marion  Steam  Shovel  Co.,  of  Marion,  Ohio. 

The  hull  is  composed  of  a  framework  of  heavy  timbers,  which 
should  be  of  continuous  length  as  far  as  is  practicable.  The 
writer  has  seen  timbers  14  in.  square  and  having  a  length  of  87  ft., 
used  for  the  longitudinal  bracing  of  a  hull,  which  had  an  overall 
length  of  110  feet.  Transverse  timbers  should  always  be  the  full 
width  of  the  hull.  In  the  construction  referred  to  above,  trans- 
verse sills  and  caps  were  used  and  were  30  in.  square  with  a 
length  of  40  feet.  The  framework  is  covered  on  the  sides,  top  and 
bottom  with  3-in.  plank.  In  the  case  of  a  large  hull  with  very 
heavy  machinery,  the  sides  and  ends  may  be  made  of  heavy 
timbers,  placed  one  on  another.  All  timbers  should  be  well 
bolted  together;  although  in  small  hulls  of  light  construction,  the 
planking  is  generally  used  and  as  both  woods  are  about  equal 
in  strength,  the  preference  is  given  to  the  cheaper.  Great 
care  should  be  taken  in  framing  and  splicing  timbers,  so  as  to 
secure  strong  joints,  which  should  stagger  where  practicable. 

Too  much  care  cannot  be  taken  in  the  construction  of  the  hull 
to  secure  the  greatest  strength  and  rigidity  possible.  When  a 
dredge  is  in  operation,  extremely  severe  strains  of  every  kind  are 
being  applied  in  rapid  succession.  The  joints  of  the  planking 
on  the  sides,  ends  and  bottom  must  be  made  watertight.  This 
is  done  by  fitting  the  adjacent  planks  together  so  as  to  leave  a 
V-shaped  joint,  with  an  opening  of  about  ^  in.  on  the  outside 
surface.  Three  threads  of  oakum  should  be  driven  tightly  into 
the  joints,  until  the  surface  of  the  oakum  is  about  J£  in.  below 
the  outside  surface.  This  space  should  then  be  filled  with  hot 
coal-tar.  It  is  not  necessary  to  calk  the  deck  joints,  unless  the 
dredge  is  to  be  towed  through  rough  water. 

It  is  rarely  practicable  to  move  a  dredge  from  one  job  to  an- 
other and  so  it  is  generally  dismantled  for  shipment  by  railroad. 

If  the  length  of  shipment  is  great,  it  is  more  economical  to 
build  a  new  hull,  rather  than  to  move  the  old  one.  Recently, 
the  manufacturers  of  a  steel  dredge  have  constructed  a  steel 
hull,  which  is  made  in  sections,  which  can  be  readily  bolted 
together. 

On  deep-water  dredges  the  boiler,  coal  bunkers  and  heavier 
machinery  are  placed  on  the  bottom  of  the  hull  to  secure  maxi- 


DIPPERlDREDGES 


175 


mum  stability.  On  ditching  dredges,  however,  it  is  the  custom 
to  place  the  boiler,  coal  bunkers,  water  tank,  condenser,  etc.,  on 
the  rear  end  of  the  deck,  which  is  from  1  to  2  ft.  lower  than  the 
main  deck.  See  Figs.  87  and  88. 

[BOILER 

The  use  of  a  boiler  on  a  floating-dipper  dredge  is  very  similar 
to  that  on- a  drag-line  excavator  and  the  reader  is  referred  to  the 
description  on  pages  83  and  84  of  boilers  for  dry-land  excavators. 

It  would  be  well  to  emphasize  a  few  important  points  and  rec- 
ommendations, which  have  been  previously  mentioned. 


Fio.  89. — Boiler    and    piping    system    of    floating    dipper     dredge. 

Author.) 


(Photo  by 


The  locomotive  fire-box  type  has  been  generally  found  to  be 
the  most  satisfactory  to  meet  the  exacting  conditions  of  dredge 
work.  It  is  easily  adaptable  to  the  consumption  of  various  grades 
and  kinds  of  fuel  and  can  be  easily  cleaned.  The  Scotch-marine 
type  of  boiler  is  usually  considered  to  be  the  more  economical  of 
fuel,  the  more  durable  and  the  safer  of  these  two  types,  which  are 
used  on  dredges.  However,  the  writer  has  often  seen  the  two 
types  used  on  two  dredges  on  the  same  job,  and  the  locomotive 
type  always  gave  the  more  efficient  and  economical  service.  See 
Fig.  89. 


176    EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

It  is  generally  necessary  to  use  a  water  purifying  system  on  a 
dredge,  because  the  available  water  supply  is  either  surface  water 
from  swamps  or  marshes  or  from  shallow  wells.  This  water  is 
usually  highly  impregnated  with  magnesia,  lime,  or  the  sodium 
salts.  These  are  all  serious  scale-forming  materials  and  they 
should  be  removed  from  the  water  before  it  is  fed  into  the  boiler. 
A  feed-water  heater  and  purifier  is  the  best  means  of  accomplish- 
ing this  result. 

The  writer  has  seen  two  boilers  used  on  one  dredge.  These 
were  placed  side  by  side  and  connected  so  that  the  two  could  be 
used  together  or  singly.  The  advantages  of  such  a  duplicate 
equipment  are  facility  for  cleaning  without  stopping  the  opera- 
tion of  the  dredge  and  the  use  of  extra  power  when  needed  for 
heavy  or  frozen-soil  excavation.  This  novel  installation  means 
a  greater  initial  cost,  but  cases  could  be  cited  where  it  would  have 
saved  the  extra  expense  several  times  over. 

ENGINES 

The  hoisting  and  backing  machinery  are  of  three  different 
types,  depending  on  the  method  of  transmitting  the  power; 
single,  double  and  triple  hitch.  These  three  classes  are  provided 
for  by  the  use  of  a  single,  a  two-part,  or  a  three-part  hoisting 
line.  In  the  first  class,  the  power  developed  by  the  engine  is 
compounded  through  gears,  the  hoisting  rope  being  connected 
directly  to  the  dipper  handle.  In  the  two  latter  classes,  the  power 
is  compounded  by  means  of  a  sheave  attached  to  the  bail  of  the 
dipper. 

The  main  engine  for  a  dipper  dredge  is  very  similar  to  that 
used  on  a  drag-line  excavator.  It  should  be  some  standard  type 
of  horizontal,  double-cylinder,  friction-drum  engine,  which  must  be 
self-contained  on  a  cast-iron  or  structural-steel  bed  plate.  There 
must  be  two  drums,  one  for  the  hoisting  cable  and  one  for  the 
backing  cable.  These  drums  are  generally  grooved  to  hold  the 
first  layer  of  cable  in  place,  and  are  controlled  by  outside  friction 
bands,  which  are  operated  by  steam-actuated  rams  attached  to  the 
spokes  of  the  large  gear  wheel.  Provision  should  be  made  in 
these  rams  for  the  automatic  compensation  of  contraction  and 
expansion  in  the  wheel.  The  backing  drum  should  be  provided 
with  a  reducing  valve  which  automatically  regulates  the  steam 
pressure  to  the  load  applied.  This  eliminates  the  jerking  and 
snapping  of  the  backing  cable. 


DIPPER  DREDGES  177 

The  size  and  power  of  engine  required  depends  upon  the  size 
of  the  bucket  and  the  length  of  the  boom.  The  power  of  an 
engine  is  determined  by  the  dimensions  of  its  cylinders.  These 
required  by  the  various  size  dredges  are  shown  in  Tables  X  and 
XI,  pages  170  to  172.  As  the  engine  on  a  dredge  is  run  inter- 
mittently and  at  low  speed  it  is  preferable  to  have  an  engine 
cylinder  of  small  diameter  and  long  stroke.  Too  much  emphasis 
cannot  be  put  upon  the  necessity  of  having  all  the  parts  of  the 
engine  very  strongly  built.  The  continual  application  and 
removal  of  the  load  brings  vibratory  strains  upon  the  machinery, 
which,  unless  built  of  the  very  best  material  and  of  ample 
strength,  will  be  subject  to  frequent  breaks.  The  latter  mean 
shutting  down  dredging  operations  and  the  expenditure  of  time 
and  expense  in  repairs.  A  frequent  cause  of  trouble  and  delay  in 
the  operation  of  a  dredge  engine  is  the  binding  of  the  friction 
clutches.  This  is  caused  by  the  excessive  heating  of  the  friction 
surfaces,  which  are  usually  composed  of  hard-wood  blocks  or  a 
vulcanized  fiber.  Experience  has  shown  that  little  trouble  is 
derived  from  this  source  if  the  diameter  of  the  friction  section 
is  made  from  two  and  one-half  to  three  times  that  of  the  main 
barrel  of  the  drum.  The  main  engine  of  a  well-known  make  of 
floating-dipper  dredge  is  shown  in  Fig.  90. 

The  swinging  engines  of  dredges  which  have  a  dipper  capacity 
greater  than  1  cu.  yd.  are  generally  independent  of  the  main  engine. 
For  the  J^  cu.  yd.,  the  %  cu.yd.,  and  1  cu.  yd.  sizes  of  dredge 
the  swinging  mechanism  consists  of  two  independent  swinging 
drums,  which  are  attached  to  a  long  shaft,  geared  to  the  main, 
engine.  This  method  of  operation  is  shown  in  Fig.  91.  A 
chain  or  wire  rope  extends  from  one  drum  around  the  turntable  or 
swinging  circle  to  the  other  drum.  After  the  dipper  is  raised 
out  of  the  channel  to  the  proper  point,  the  hoisting  drum  is  shut 
down  and  power  applied  to  revolve  the  swinging-drum  shaft. 
One  drum  is  set  by  the  friction  and  winds  up  the  chain  or  cable, 
which  in  turn  unwinds  from  the  other  or  loose  drum.  The  ad- 
vantages of  this  method  are  the  cheapness  of  construction  and 
economy  of  space  in  using  one  engine.  The  disadvantages 
are  the  necessity  of  using  the  hoisting  engine  in  order  to  operate 
the  swinging  device,  the  difficulty  of  keeping  the  swinging  cable 
or  chain  taut  and  the  waste  of  power. 

In  nearly  all  makes  of  dredges  over  1  cu.  yd.  capacity  a  separate 
swinging  engine  is  used.  The  type  of  engine  used  is  one  which 
12 


178     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS] 

is  reversible  and  operated  by  a  balanced  throttle  valve.  The 
engine  is  compound  geared  to  a  long  shaft,  having  two  drums 
placed  at  such  distance  apart  so  as  to  give  a  direct  pull  to  the 


FIG.  90. — Hoisting  engine  of  floating  dipper  dredge.     (Photo  by  Author.) 

swinging  circle  on  either  side.  A  chain  or  steel  cable  extends 
from  the  bottom  side  of  one  drum  to  the  swinging  circle  or  turn- 
table and  thence  to  the  top  side  of  the  other  drum.  Where  it  is 


FIG.  91. — Combinedlhoisting  and  swinging  engine  of  floating  dipper  dredge. 

desired  to  swing  the  boom,  the  swinging  engine  is  operated  and 
the  cable  or  chain  winds  up  on  the  one  drum  as  fast  as  it  unwinds 
on  the  other.  A  typical  swinging  engine  is  shown  in  Fig.  92, 


DIPPER  DREDGES 


179 


The  swinging  circle  or  turntable  may  be  either  fixed  or  mov- 
able and  may  be  placed  either  just  above  or  several  feet  above 
the  deck. 

For  dredges  of  dipper  capacity  up  to  2  cu.  yd.  most  manufactur- 
ers use  a  solid  deck  swinging  circle.  This  consists  of  a  drum- 
shaped  framework  of  steel  plates  and  a  side  web  of  channels. 
In  the  center  of  the  circle  is  a  large  cast  ring,  which  rests  and 
revolves  upon  the  main  base  casting,  which  is  fastened  to  the 
front  edge  of  the  deck.  The  lower  end  of  the  boom  is  pivoted 
on  this  cast  ring  and  revolves  with  the  swinging  circle.  Several 


FIG.  92. — Swinging  engine  of  floating  dipper  dredge.     (Photo  by  Author.) 

loop  rods  are  generally  used  to  connect  the  outer  rim  of  the  cir- 
cle at  the  ends  of  its  transverse  diameter  with  the  boom  at 
points  on  either  side  and  about  one-fourth  of  its  length.  The 
diameter  of  the  swinging  circle  should  be  sufficient  to  give  a 
direct  pull  from  the  drums  of  the  swinging  engine  and  also  not 
less  than  one-fifth  of  the  horizontal  reach  of  the  boom.  Since 
the  rim  of  the  swinging  circle,  where  the  pull  from  the  cable  is 
applied,  is  several  feet  lower  than  the  points  on  the  boom  where 
the  pull  is  transferred  from  the  rim  of  the  circle  to  the  boom  by 
the  rods  or  braces,  there  results  a  tilting  action.  This  causes  a 
loss  of  power  and  a  warping  of  the  swinging  circle.  To  overcome 


180     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

this  eccentricity  in  the  transference  of  the  pull,  the  swinging  cir- 
cle is  often  placed  on  the  upper  end  of  a  mast,  which  rests  on  the 
lower  pivot  casting  and  revolves  the  circle  in  a  plane  8  or  10  feet, 
above  the  deck.  The  circle,  in  this  case,  is  braced  to  the  boom 
in  the  plane  of  the  rim  and  thus  a  direct  pull  is  obtained.  This 
method  is  advantageous  when  the  boom  is  longer  than  60  feet. 
The  objections  to  this  method  are  first,  it  places  considerable 
weight  above  the  deck  and  decreases  the  stability  of  the  dredge; 
second,  it  requires  a  special  arrangement  of  sheaves  to  lead  the 
swinging  cable  from  the  drums  to  the  circle  and  a  resulting  loss 
of  power  and  increased  wear  on  the  cable. 

Where  the  dipper  is  of  large  capacity  and  the  boom  of  great 
length  (over  70  ft.),  a  stationary  turntable  is  generally  used. 
The  turntable  is  placed  just  above  the  deck  or  several  feet  above, 
as  has  been  explained  for  the  swinging  circle.  The  stationary 
circle  consists  of  a  circular  rim  and  several  spokes,  which  are  of 
structural  steel  and  fastened  to  the  central  cast  pivot  and  the 
deck  of  the  hull.  The  swinging  chain  or  cable  leads  from  drums 
to  the  turntable  where  it  passes  over  small  sheaves  placed  in  the 
rim.  In  this  case,  since  the  circle  is  fixed  in  position,  its  diameter 
is  not  dependent  on  the  reach  of  the  boom,  but  should  be  large 
enough  so  that  the  power  may  be  applied  at  a  distance  from  the 
foot  of  the  boom  to  give  a  direct  and  uniform  pull.  The  boom 
is  connected  to  the  axis  of  rotation  by  a  large  timber  fastened  to 
a  swinging  chain  or  cable  at  the  point  where  they  cross.  Then 
the  movement  of  the  chain  or  cable  drives  the  boom,  which  is 
pivoted  at  its  lower  end. 

A-FRAME 

The  A-frame  is  a  tower  or  frame  composed  of  large  timbers 
securely  seated  on  the  top  of  the  hull  at  each  side  near  the  front 
and  joined  together  at  the  top  with  a  cast-steel  head  and  yoke. 
This  frame  is  generally  composed  of  two  main  legs  in  a  nearly 
vertical  plane,  inclined  toward  the  front  at  a  slope  of  about  1 
in  6,  and  stayed  by  guy  rods  extending  from  the  head  block  of  the 
frame  to  the  sides  of  the  hull  near  the  rear  end.  Some  dredge 
builders  use  two  rear  legs  or  timbers  as  braces  and  in  this  case  the 
too  main  legs  are  set  in  a  vertical  plane.  It  is  necessary  that 
the  A-frame  be  strongly  braced  and  held  rigidly  in  position  as 
the  pull  from  the  outer  and  loaded  end  of  the  boom  is  largely 
borne  by  the  top  of  the  A-frame.  A  break  or  failure  of  any  part 


DIPPER  DREDGES 


181 


of  this  frame  would  probably  result  in  serious  loss  of  life  and 
damage  to  the  dredge.  The  height  of  the  A-frame  is  largely 
governed  by  the  maximum  required  elevation  of  the  end  of  the 
boom  which  will  be  determined  by  the  depth  of  excavation  and 
distance  away  from  the  ditch  to  the  place  where  the  excavated 
material  must  be  deposited.  The  top  of  the  head  block  is  a  large 
pin  on  which  the  yoke  revolves.  The  yoke  is  a  short-trussed 
beam  to  the  ends  of  which  are  attached  the  cables  which  support 
the  outer  end  of  the  beam.  See  Fig.  93  for  typical  A-frame 
details. 


FIG.  93. — A-frame  of  floating  dipper  dredge.     (Photo  by  Author.) 
SPUDS 

To  hold  the  hull  horizontal  and  to  prevent  its  being  tipped 
about  while  the  dredge  is  in  operation,  three  leg  braces  or  spuds 
are  provided.  One  is  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  rear  end  of  the 
hull  and  one  on  each  side  near  the  front.  When  the  ditch  is 
narrow  and  the  dredge  has  a  hull  nearly  the  width  of  the  ditch, 
bank  spuds  are  used.  As  shown  in  Fig.  99,  these  inclined  bank 
spuds  are  pivoted  to  the  head  block  of  the  A-frame  and  the  lower 
ends  are  pivoted  to  large  platforms  which  transmit  the  pressure 
to  the  soil.  Some  manufacturers  use  a  rectangular  spud  frame, 


182    EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


FIG.  94. — Spud  engine  of  floating  dipper  dredge.     (Photo  by  Author.) 


FIG.  95. — Spud    hoisting    mechanism    of    floating    dipper    dredge.     (Photo    by 

Author.} 


DIPPER  DREDGES  183 

which  is  placed  just  behind  the  A-frame.  At  the  upper  corners 
of  the  spud  frame  are  bolted  plates  supporting  pinions  or  dogs, 
which  engage  the  teeth  of  racks  fastened  to  the  lower  sides  of  the 
spuds.  This  simple  mechanism  serves  to  lock  the  spuds  in  place. 
Short  braces  connect  the  lower  ends  of  the  spuds  with  the  sides 
of  the  hull  at  the  feet  of  the  A-frame.  Vertical  side  spuds  are 
used  in  a  wide  ditch  and  their  lower  ends  bear  directly  on  the  bot- 
tom of  the  ditch.  The  rear  spud  is  always  vertical  and  is  used 
to  prevent  the  dredge  from  swinging  about  during  its  operation. 
Each  spud  is  a  large  solid  timber  which  moves  inside  of  an  iron 
or  timber  box  or  guide  frame.  This  is  the  new  form  of  telescopic 


Fia.96 — Spud  hoist  of  floating  dipper  dredge. 

spud.  Teeth  on  a  rack  fastened  to  the  lower  side  of  the  spud 
engage  a  pinion  on  the  lower  side  at  the  end  of  the  box  section. 
The  spuds  are  raised  and  lowered  by  means  of  steel-wire  ropes 
passing  over  sheaves  and  controlled  by  special  drums.  These 
drums  are  mounted  on  a  separate  bed  plate  and  their  shaft 
is  connected  to  the  end  of  the  backing  drum  sha*t  by  a  jaw  clutch, 
which  is  disengaged  when  the  spuds  are  not  to  be  operated. 
Figure  96  shows  a  typical  spud  hoist.  In  large  dredges,  where 
vertical  spuds  are  used,  they  are  often  operated  by  a  steam 
cylinder  fastened  to  the  front  of  each  spud  and  controlling  a 
brake  or  clamp,  which  encircles  the  spud  and  is  attached  to  the 
piston  of  the  cylinder.  This  method  is  cumbersome,  trouble- 
some to  operate,  and  uneconomical  of  power.  This  has  been 


184    EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

replaced  by  the  installation  of  a  separate  engine  to  operate  each 
of  the  front  spuds.  This  allows  each  spud  to  be  operated  inde- 
pendently and  without  using  the  main  engine.  The  details  of 
such  a  spud  engine  are  shown  in  Figs.  94  and  95. 

Wherever  it  is  possible  it  is  best  to  use  the  inclined  bank  spuds 
of  the  telescopic  type.  These  braces  take  the  load  from  the  top 
of  the  A-frame  to  the  banks  along  the  sides  of  the  ditch  and 
thus  remove  much  strain  from  the  hull  of  the  dredge.  As  the 
stability  of  the  dredge  when  in  operation  depends  to  a  great  ex- 
tent upon  the  strength  and  proper  working  of  the  spuds,  it  is 
necessary  that  they  be  made  amply  large  and  provided  with  a 
strong  and  reliable  locking  device.  The  spuds  must  be  raised 
and  lowered  each  time  the  dredge  makes  a  move,  hence,  it  is 
evident  that  the  ease  and  rapidity  of  their  operation  will  greatly 
affect  the  progress  of  the  work. 

BOOM 

The  boom  or  crane  is  a  fish-bellied  shaped  beam,  usually 
constructed  of  wood.  It  is  made  in  two  equal  parts  or  sections 
and  so  spaced  apart  that  the  dipper  handle  may  work  between 
them.  When  the  length  of  the  boom  is  over  70  ft.,  it  is  often 
made  of  trussed  timbers  to  secure  lightness  with  strength.  See 
Fig.  97.  For  lengths  up  to  70  ft.,  however,  the  webs  of  the 
booms  are  generally  made  solid.  See  Fig.  99.  When  the  ca- 
pacity of  the  dipper  is  over  2%  cu.  yd.,  dredge  builders  often 
use  a  steel-trussed  beam,  similar  in  construction  to  those  used 
on  the  drag-line  excavators.  The  length  of  the  boom  depends  on 
the  capacity  of  the  dredge,  the  cross-section  of  the  ditch  to  be 
excavated,  and  distance  from  the  center  of  the  ditch  to  the  place 
where  the  excavated  material  must  be  deposited.  The  width 
of  the  boom  at  the  ends  need  only  be  enough  to  provide  sufficient 
bearing  for  the  end  castings.  The  width  at  the  center  should 
be  from  one-tenth  to  one-twelfth  of  the  length  of  the  boom. 
As  has  been  stated  under  "Hull,"  the  length  of  boom  should 
bear  a  definite  relation  to  the  width  of  the  hull.  When  vertical 
spuds  are  used  the  length  of  boom  should  be  about  one  and  one- 
half  times  the  width  of  the  hull,  while  with  the  use  of  bank  spuds, 
the  length  may  be  increased  to  twice  the  width  of  the  hull.  The 
lower  end  of  the  boom  is  pivoted  to  the  swinging  circle  or  upper 
section  of  the  cast  pivot.  The  outer  end  is  connected  to  the  yoke 


DIPPER  DREDGES 


185 


at  the  top  of  the  A-frame  by  means  of  adjustable  wire  cables. 
At  the  outer  end  of  the  boom  is  the  sheave  over  which  the  hoist- 
ing cable  passes  on  its  way  from  the  sheave  attached  to  the  bail 
of  the  dipper  to  the  fair  lead  sheaves  at  the  lower  end  of  the  boom 
and  thence  to  the  drum  of  the  main  engine.  On  top  of  the  boom 
and  a  little  below  the  center  is  placed  the  brake  shaft,  upon  which 
the  dipper  handle  moves.  This  mechanism  consists  of  two  large 
wheels  whose  motion  is  controlled  by 'friction  brakes.  These 


FIG.  97. — Boom     and     dipper    handle     of    floating    dipper     dredge.     (Photo 

by  Author.) 


wheels  connect  a  pinion  over  whose  periphery  moves  a  toothed 
rack  fastened  to  the  lower  side  of  the  dipper  handle.  When  the 
friction  bands  are  released  the  weight  of  the  dipper  and  its  handle 
allows  the  latter  to  move  downward  as  fast  as  the  hoisting  cable 
is  paid  out.  When  the  dipper  is  filled  and  has  been  raised  to 
a  suitable  position  for  swinging  the  boom,  the  application  of 
the  friction  brakes  holds  the  dipper  handle  in  place  while  the 
boom  is  being  swung  to  one  side.  For  ease  of  operation  the 
diameter  of  the  brake  wheels  should  be  about  one-twentieth  of 
the  length  of  the  boom. 


186     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 
DIPPER  HANDLE 

The  dipper  handle  works  in  conjunction  with  the  boom  and 
carries  the  excavator  or  dipper  at  its  lower  end.  Usually  it  is 
a  large  square  timber  whose  corners  are  reinforced  with  angle 
irons.  See  Figs.  97,^98  and  99.  The  lower  side  is  provided  with  a 
cog  rack,  which  moves  over  the  pinions,  mounted  on  the  top  of  the 
boom.  The  cross-section  of  the  handle  depends  on  the  size  of  the 
dipper  and  the  resulting  maximum  load  to  be  carried.  Its  length 
should  be  about  two-thirds  that  of  the  boom.  It  should  be  made 
amply  large  to  resist  the  bending  caused  by  the  prying  action  of 
the  dipper  in  loosening  hard  or  tough  material. 


FIG.  98. — Dipper  of  floating  dipper  dredge. 

DIPPER 

The  dipper  or  bucket  is  of  the  same  type  as  that  used  on  steam 
shovels.  A  reference  to  Fig.  98  will  clearly  show  the  details 
of  construction.  The  sides  are  made  of  heavy  steel  plates 
which  are  strongly  reinforced  by  steel  bars  at  the  top  and  bot- 
tom. For  ordinary  material  the  cutting  edge  is  made  of  a 
single  bent  plate,  which  can  be  easily  replaced  when  worn  out. 
When  compact  and  hard  soils  are  to  be  excavated,  large  steel 
teeth  are  used  to  reinforce  the  cutting  edge.  The  bottom  is  a 
heavy  steel  plate,  which  is  hinged  to  the  back  of  the  dipper  and 
is  held  in  place  by  a  spring  latch  riveted  to  the  front  of  the  dipper. 
The  latch  is  opened  by  the  pulling  of  a  cable  or  chain,  which 
extends  back  along  the  boom  to  the  cranesman.  As  soon  as  the 


DIPPER  DREDGES 


187 


dipper  is  lowered  the  weight  of  the  door  causes  it  to  automatic- 
ally close  and  latch.  The  size  or  capacity  of  the  dipper  varies 
from  %  to  15  cu.  yd.,  and  this  element  is  governed  by  the  size 
of  the  dredge.  This  is  dependent  on  the  size  of  the  ditch  to  be 
excavated,  the  amount  and  character  of  the  material,  and  the 
amount  of  money  available  for  the  construction  of  the  dredge. 
Generally,  the  dredge  contractor  builds  his  hull,  when  practicable 
nearly  as  wide  as  the  ditch  so  as  to  use  bank  spuds,  or  in  the  case 
of  wide  ditches  or  canals  (over  50  ft.  wide  on  top),  he  makes  the 


FIG.  99. — Dipper  dredge  with  bank  spuds  excavating  drainage  ditch. 

by  Author.) 


(Photo 


boat  wide  enough  to  excavate  the  canal  in  two  cuttings.  He 
then  uses  the  largest  size  dipper  which  can  be  used  with  the  size 
and  strength  of  hull.  The  larger  the  dipper  used,  the  larger  the 
machinery  and  boiler  required  to  operate  the  dredge,  but  it  should 
be  noted  that  6  men  can  operate  a  3J^-cu.  yd.  dredge  as  well  as 
a  1%-cu.  yd.  machine.  The  principal  difference  in  the  cost  of 
operation  would  be  in  the  amount  of  fuel  used. 

Large  sea-going  dredges  equipped  with  dippers  of  from  5  to 
10  yd.  capacities  have  been  used  for  several  years  on  harbor 
improvements,  and  in  1914  two  mammoth  dredges,  each  equipped 
with  15-yd.  dippers,  were  used  on  the  Panama  Canal  for  the  re- 
moval of  slides. 


188    EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

For  the  excavation  of  loose  sand,  silt  and  gravel,  the  clam-shell 
and  orange-peel  buckets  are  very  efficient.  These  are  single- 
line  buckets  and  the  backing  cable  would  not  be  used.  The 
details  and  dimensions  of  a  standard  make  of  these  two  types 
of  bucket  are  given  in  Figs.  24  and  25,  pages  42  and  43. 

GENERAL  DETAILS 

The  general  principles  of  design  and  construction  which  apply 
to  any  piece  of  machinery  are  especially  noteworthy  in  the  case 
of  a  floating-dipper  dredge.  Care  must  be  taken  to  have  all 
parts  rightly  proportioned  and  coordinated.  Always  use  the 
simplest  details  and  make  them  amply  strong.  The  output, 
and  therefore  the  profitableness  of  a  dredge,  is  proportional  to 
the  time  that  the  dipper  is  working  and  the  forge  is  not  in  use. 
Breakdowns  and  repairs  are  not  only  troublesome  and  expensive 
in  themselves,  but  they  mean  loss  of  working  time  and  income. 

All  gears,  pinions,  racks,  important  castings  and  cutting 
edges  should  be  made  of  cast  steel.  All  straps,  bands,  rods, 
and  bolts  should  be  made  of  first-grade  wrought  iron,  such  as 
Norway  iron. 

All  solid  timbers,  such  as  are  used  for  the  spuds,  A-frame, 
and  dipper  handle,  should  be  of  heart  wood,  straight  grained, 
free  from  shakes,  twists,  decay,  large  pitch  pockets,  or  other 
defects.  Long-leal  yellow  pine,  Douglas  fir,  or  white  oak  should 
be  used. 

Wire  rope  or  cable  made  of  plow  steel  wire  is  generally  used 
in  preference  to  chain.  The  wire  rope  is  cheaper,  lighter,  takes 
up  less  room  on  the  drums  and  sheaves  and  gives  warning  of 
failure  by  the  preliminary  breaking  of  a  few  strands.  The 
chain,  however,  will  break  a  link  and  pull  apart  suddenly  and 
often  cause  a  bad  accident.  Some  dredge  builders  still  use  a 
chain  for  operating  the  swinging  circle  or  turntable.  The  fric- 
tion of  a  wire  rope  is  less  and  more  uniform  than  that  of  a  chain. 

The  sheaves  should  be  of  as  large  diameter  as  possible,  usually 
not  less  than  30  times  the  diameter  of  wire  cable  used  on  it. 
They  should  be  made  of  an  excellent  grade  of  gray  cast  iron  and  be 
provided  with  phophor-bronze  bushings.  The  pins  must  b&  of 
the  highest  grade  of  medium  steel  and  turned  to  fit  accurately 
bored  holes  in  the  sheaves.  The  groove  in  the  rim  of  the  sheave 
should  have  a  depth  not  less  than  three  times  the  diameter  of 


DIPPER  DREDGES  189 

the  wire  rope.     Where  the  cable  is  subject  to  jumping  off  the 
sheave,  a  suitable  guard  or  housing  should  be  provided. 

As  a  chain  is  "as  strong  as  its  weakest  link,"  so  a  dredge 
is  as  strong  as  its  weakest  part.  Too  much  care  cannot  be  taken 
in  the  building  of  a  dredge  to  make  every  part  amply  strong, 
stronger  than  is  estimated  or  required.  It  is  an  unwise  and 
short-sighted  policy  to  spare  initial  expense  in  the  construction 
of  any  form  of  excavator.  When  economy  is  thus  early  prac- 
tised, vexations  and  costly  breaks  and  delays  are  almost  sure  to 
follow.  The  writer  has  seen  cases  of  this  kind  when  a  fundamen- 
tal weakness  in  a  dredge  caused  break  after  break,  until  the  men 
working  on  the  machine  actually  came  to  believe  that  it  was 
"hoodood"  and  refused  to  continue  their  work. 

In  order  to  avoid  long  delays  due  to  breaks  and  repairs,  du- 
plicate parts  of  all  the  important  sections  of  the  machinery 
should  be  kept  always  on  the  dredge.  Such  parts  would  include 
cables,  sheaves,  bolts,  pins,  shafts,  etc. 

127.  Method  of  Operation. — The  method  of  operation  of  a 
dipper  dredge  is  very  similar  to  that  of  a  steam  shovel,  which 
has  been  previously  described  in  Chapter  VI  on  Power  Shovels. 
The  crew  of  a  dipper  dredge  consists  of  an  engineer,  a  cranesman, 
a  fireman,  and  from  two  to  four  laborers,  for  each  shift.  A 
dipper  dredge  is  ordinarily  run  on  two  11-hr,  shifts,  and  hence 
two  complete  crews  are  necessary.  The  engineer  operates  the 
levers  and  brakes  which  control  the  motions  of  hoisting,  backing, 
swinging,  and  moving  the  dredge.  The  cranesman  stands  on  a 
little  platform  just  above  the  swinging  circle  on  the  right  side  of 
the  boom,  and  controls  the  operation  of  the  dipper  as  to  loading 
and  dumping.  The  fireman  supplies  the  boiler  with  fuel  and  has 
general  charge  of  the  oiling  and  care  of  the  machinery.  The 
laborers  supply  the  dredge  with  fuel,  oil,  and  supplies,  and  per- 
form the  necessary  general  work  around  the  machinery. 

As  the  dipper  and  dipper  handle  slide  downward  toward  the 
face  of  the  excavation,  the  bottom  of  the  dipper  closes  of  its 
own  weight  and  latches.  When  the  dipper  reaches  the  bottom 
of  the  channel,  the  engineer  applies  the  friction  clutch  to  the  hoist- 
ing drum  and  throws  a  lever,  starting  the  drum  to  wind  up  the 
hoist  line.  This  pulls  the  dipper  upward,  and  the  forward  mo- 
tion is  regulated  by  the  tension  on  the  backing  line.  As  soon  as 
the  dipper  is  clear  of  the  surface  and  has  completed  the  cut, 
the  engineer  throws  the  hoisting  drum  out  of  gear  and  sets  the 


190    EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

friction  clutch,  thus  bringing  the  dipper  to  a  stop.  Then  the 
swinging  engine  is  started  and  the  boom  is  swung  around  to  one 
side  until  the  dipper  is  over  the  dumping  place.  With  a  foot 
brake,  the  engineer  sets  the  friction  clutch  and  stops  the  revolu- 
tion of  the  swinging  drums.  The  cranesman  then  pulls  the  latch 
rope,  and  this  opens  the  latch,  releasing  the  bottom  which  drops 
and  allows  the  dipper  contents  to  slide  out.  The  engineer  then 
releases  the  friction  clutch  and  reverses  the  swinging  engines, 
pulling  the  boom  and  dipper  back  into  position  for  the  next  cut. 
As  the  boom  swings  around,  the  engineer  slowly  releases  the  fric- 
tion clutch  of  the  hoisting  and  backing  drums  and  simultaneously 
slightly  pulls  in  the  dipper  toward  the  dredge  and  lowers  it  into 
the  cut,  so  as  to  produce  a  prying  action.  As  the  latter  part  of 
the  drop  is  reached,  the  backing  cable  is  released  gradually  and 
the  dipper  allowed  to  move  forward  toward  the  face  of  the  cut. 
The  time  required  for  a  complete  cycle  of  operations  depends 
upon  the  skill  of  the  operator  and  the  nature  of  the  material 
excavated.  The  average  time  for  a  complete  swing  should  be 
about  40  seconds.  The  most  efficient  results  are  secured  when 
the  operations  are  made  smoothly  and  uniformly  so  as  to  cause 
the  least  amount  of  lost  motion  and  wear  and  tear  on  the 
machinery. 

After  the  entire  face  of  the  cut  has  been  removed  within  reach 
of  the  dipper,  the  dipper  is  raised  and  the  boom  slowly  swung 
from  side  to  side  to  relieve  the  pressure  on  the  spuds.  With 
the  boom  remaining  in  a  central  position,  the  spud  hoists  are 
put  in  operation  and  the  spuds  raised  from  their  resting  places, 
thus  allowing  the  hull  to  float  ahead  toward  the  face  of  the  cut. 
With  each  move,  the  dredge  makes  an  advance  of  about  6  feet. 
The  spuds  are  then  lowered  by  releasing  the  drums,  or  by 
reversing  gears,  and  the  dredge  is  ready  for  the  next  cut. 

128.  Cost  of  Operation. — The  cost  of  operation  of  a  dipper 
dredge  will  depend  on  the  size  and  type  of  dredge  used,  the  char- 
acter and  magnitude  of  the  work,  the  kind  of  material  to  be  ex- 
cavated, the  efficiency  of  the  operator,  etc. 

As  a  typical  case,  the  following  is  a  detailed  statement  of 
the  expense  connected  with  the  operation  of  a  dipper  dredge, 
equipped  with  a  1%-yd.  dipper  and  a  70-ft.  boom,  on  the 
construction  of  a  drainage  channel  along  the  bottom  lands  of 
a  central  western  river.  The  soil  is  loam  and  clay  with  no  stone 
and  a  small  amount  of  stumps  to  be  removed.  The  channel 


DIPPER  DREDGES  191 

will  be  assumed  to  contain  about  2500  cu.  yd.  per  station  of 
100  feet.  Two  crews  work  on  11-hr,  shifts  and  live  on  a 
houseboat,  which  floats  along  behind  the  dredge.  The  following 
statement  is  based  on  the  average  output  for  an  11-hr,  shift. 

OPERATING  COST  OF  DIPPER  DREDGE 
Labor: 

1  engineer  @  $125  per  month $5.00 

1  fireman  @  $75  per  month 3 . 00 

1  cranesman   @  $75  per  month 3 . 00 

2  laborers  @  $50  each  per  month 4 . 00 

1  cook  @  $40  per  month 1 . 60 


Total  labor  cost,  per  day $1G .  GO 

Fuel  and  Supplies: 

2  tons  coal  @  $6.00 $12.00 

Oil,  waste,  grease,  etc. 2 . 00 


Total  cost  of  fuel  and  supplies $14 . 00 

General  and  Overhead  Expenses: 

Board  and  lodging  for  crew  of  10  men,  per  day .  $3 . 50 

Repairs  and  incidentals 4 .00 

Interest  on  investment  (6  per  cent,  of  $10,000) l .  1 . 50 

Depreciation  (10  per  cent,  of  $10,000)1 5.00 


Total  general  expense $14 . 00 


Total  cost  of  operation  for  1 1-hr,  shift $44 . 60 

Average  output  (cu.  yd.) 1200 

Unit  cost  of  dipper  dredging,  per  cu.  yd., 

$44.60  +  1200  =  $0.037 

129.  Field  of  Usefulness. — The  dipper  dredge  is  the  best 
known  and  most  popular  type  of  excavator  used  in  the  construc- 
tion of  drainage  channels.  Most  of  this  class  of  work  must  be 
done  on  low,  swampy  land,  where  it  is  difficult  for  anything  but 
a  boat  to  move  about.  The  dipper  dredge  with  its  large  bearing 
area  and  shallow  draft  is  especially  adapted  to  operating  under 
these  conditions.  Where  the  soil  is  too  soft  to  support  the 
smaller  types  of  dry-land  excavators,  and  a  considerable  number 
of  large  stumps  must  be  removed,  the  smaller  lateral  ditches 
of  a  drainage  system  can  be  excavated  more  economically  with 
a  small  dipper  dredge  than  with  any  other  type  of  excavator. 

1  Based  on  200  days  in  a  year  and  a  10-year  life 


192     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


The  great  thrusting  and  prying  power  of  the  dipper  dredge 
makes  it  an  efficient  machine  for  the  removal  of  stumps  and  simi- 
lar obstructions.  However,  in  heavily  timbered  country  it 
is  advisable  to  blast  out  or  loosen  up  large  stumps  before  the 
dredge  reaches  them. 

Orange-peel  and  clam-shell  buckets  are  most  useful  in  han- 
dling sand,  gravel  and  muck.  In  dense,  packed  sand  the  clam- 
shell bucket  is  the  most  serviceable,  and  in  hard  material,  manga- 
nese-steel teeth  should  be  placed  on  the  cutting  edges  of  the 
bucket.  Orange-peel  buckets  exert  considerable  prying  and 
tearing  power  and  are  well  adapted  to  stump  pulling.  For 
the  cleaning  out  of  old  canals,  where  the  material  is  largely 


FIG.  100. — Cross-section  of  ditch  excavated  with  floating  dipper  dredge. 

muck  and  sticky  clay,  the  grab  bucket  may  be  used  but  care 
should  be  taken  to  secure  tight  closing  of  the  loaded  bucket  to 
prevent  leakage  and  "  dropping  off." 

In  many  cases  it  is  cheaper  to  use  one  of  the  smaller  sizes 
of  dipper  dredge  (having  a  16-ft.  width  of  hull,  a  40-ft.  boom 
and  a  1-yd.  dipper),  and  to  excavate  a  ditch  twice  the  neces- 
sary size,  than  to  use  a  smaller  machine  of  another  type  to  dig 
a  channel  the  size  required.  The  most  economical  size  of  chan- 
nel for  the  operation  of  a  dipper  dredge  is  one  with  a  bottom 
width  of  40  ft.  and  an  average  depth  of  10  feet.  When  the  cross- 
section  of  the  channel  becomes  greater  than  this,  the  cost  in- 
creases until  a  channel  having  a  cross-sectional  area  of  about 
1200  sq.  ft.  is  reached,  when  the  use  of  the  dipper  dredge  is  no 
longer  efficient  or  practicable. 

The  channel  which  a  dipper  dredge  excavates  is  rather  uneven 
in  cross-section  and  does  not  have  smooth  side  slopes  and  true 
bottom  grades.  The  form  of  ditch  ,excavated  by  this  machine 
is  shown  in  Fig.  100.  After  several  years'  use  the  channel  will 


DIPPER  DREDGES  193 

assume  a  general  semicircular  section.  In  shallow  channels,  or 
those  where  the  stream  flow  is  small  during  a  large  part  of  the 
year,  considerable  reduction  of  the  cross-section  may  be  caused 
by  the  deposition  of  silt  and  debris  and  the  growth  of  vegetation. 

The  dipper  dredge  is  one  of  the  most  versatile  of  modern 
excavators  as  it  can  excavate  all  kinds  of  soil  from  silt  to  loose 
rock,  pull  stumps,  remove  boulders,  bridges,  and  other  obstruc- 
tions, drive  piling,  build  earthen  dams,  and  perform  many  other 
duties  which  may  arise  during  the  coarse  of  operation. 

130.  Bibliography. — For  additional  information,  see  the 
following: 

Books 

1.  "The  Chicago  Main  Drainage  Channel,"  by  C.  S.  HILL,  published  in 
1896  by  Engineering  News  Publishing  Company,  New  York.     129  pages, 
105  figures,  8  in.  X  11  in. 

2.  "Dredges  and  Dredging,"  by  CHARLES  PRELINI,  published  in  1911  by 
D.  Van  Nostrand,  New  York.     294  pages,  figures,  6  in.  X  9  in.     Cost, 
$3.00. 

3.  "Earth  and  Rock  Excavation,"  by  CHARLES  PRELINI,  published  in 
1905  by  D.  Van  Nostrand,  New  York.     421  pages,  167  figures,  6  in.  X  9  in. 
Cost,  $3.00. 

4.  "Earthwork  and  Its  Cost,"  by  H.  P.  GILLETTE,  2d  edition,  published 
in  1912  by  McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  New  York.     254  pages,  60  figures, 
53^  in.  X  7  in.     Cost,  $2.00. 

5.  "Excavating  Machinery,"  by  J.  O.  WRIGHT.     Bulletin  published  in 
1904  by  Department  of  Drainage  Investigations  of  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 

6.  "Excavation  Machinery  Used  in  Land  Drainage,"  by  D.  L.  YARNELL. 
Bulletin  No.  300,  published  in  1915  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

7.  "Handbook  of  Construction  Plant,"  by  R.  T.  DANA,  published  by 
McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,   New  York.     4%  in.  X  7  in.,  702  pages, 
figures.     Cost,  $5.00. 

8.  "  The  Improvement  of  Rivers,"  by  THOMAS  and  WATT,  published  in 
1903  by  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  New  York.     9  in.  X  11%  in.,  772  pages,  83 
figures.    Cost,  $7.50. 

9.  "Mechanics  of  Hoisting  Machinery,"  by  WEISBACH  and  HERMANN, 
published  in  1893  by  Macmillan  &  Company,   New  York.     329  pages, 
177  figures,  5%  in.  X  8%  in. 

10.  "Regulation  of  Rivers,"  by  J.  L.  VAN  ORNUM,  published  in  1914  by 
McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  New  York.     6  in.  X  9  in.,  404  pages,  99 
figures.     Cost,  $4.00. 

Magazine  Articles 

1.  Boat  for  Sloping  Canal  Banks.  Engineering  Record,  May  23,  1914. 
Illustrated,  600  words. 

13 


194     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

2.  Blasting  a  Pit  for  a  Dipper  Dredge.     Engineering  News,  June  24, 
1915.     Illustrated,  300  words. 

3.  Canalization  of  Half-million  Acre  Drainage  District  Discloses  Canal- 
Width  Limits.     Engineering  Record,   August    5,    1916.     Illustrated,   1500 
words. 

4.  The  Claquette  Clam-shell  Dredge,  C.  E.  DAVENPORT.     Compressed 
Air,  December,  1903.     Illustrated,  2700  words. 

5.  Clamshell  Dredge  with  195-A  Boom.     Engineering  News,  March  1, 
1917.     Illustrated,  1400  words. 

6.  A  Combination  Dipper  and  Clam-shell  Bucket  Dredge,  FRANK  EDES. 
International  Marine  Engineering,  August,  1909.     Illustrated,  1200  words. 

7.  Construction  Plant  Controls  Minimum  Drainage  Ditch  and  Levee 
Sections.     Engineering  Record,  May  27,  1916.     Illustrated,  1000  words. 

8.  Construction  Methods  and  Plant  for  Diversion  and  Drainage  Work. 
Engineering  Record,  December  5,  1914.     Illustrated,  2000  words. 

9.  The  Cost  of  Deep-water  Dredging,  with  a  Clam-shell  Dredge  for  the 
Stony  Point  Extension  of  the  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  Breakwater,  EMILE  Low. 
Engineering  News,  October  11,  1906.     1000  words. 

10.  Cost  of  Dredging  with  Different  Classes  of  Plant,  JOHN  BOGART. 
Engineering  Record,  August  10,  1901. 

11.  Cost  of  Excavating  4,151,000  cu.  yd.  of  Material  with  51  Dipper 
and  Bucket  Dredges  in  1911.     Engineering-Contracting,  October  16,  1912. 

12.  Design  and  Erection  Costs  of  Steel  Knock-Down  Dredge.     Engi- 
neering News,  July  6,  1916.     Illustrated,  700  words. 

13.  Dipper  Dredge   Bearing  That  Wears  Slowly.     Engineering  News, 
May  4,  1916.     Illustrated,  450  words. 

14.  Dipper  Dredge  Work  on  Neponset  River.     Engineering  News,  No- 
vember 15,  1913.     Illustrated. 

15.  A  Dipper  Dredge  with  Hydraulic  Jets  for  Leveling  the  Spoil  Banks. 
Engineering  News,  July  31,  1913.     Illustrated,  1000  words. 

16.  Dipper  Dredge  Rigged  as  Drag.     Engineering  Record,  January  23, 
1915. 

17.  Dredging   Contractor   Must  Keep  in  Close   Personal  Touch  with 
Work.     Engineering  Record,  December  30,  1916.     1500  words. 

18.  Dredging  Equipment  for  Any  Contract  Should  Be  Chosen  to  Fit 
Exactly  the  Conditions  Expected.     Engineering  Record,  December  16,  1916. 
Illustrated,  2500  words. 

19.  Dredging  "Sudd"  on  the  River  Nile.     Engineering  News,  March  18, 
1915.     Illustrated,  600  words. 

20.  Dredging  in  Havana  Harbor.     Engineering  Record,   November  22, 
1913.     Illustrated,  600  words. 

21.  Dredging  Work  on  the  Panama  Canal  Slides.     Engineering  News, 
April  22,  1915.     Illustrated,  2200  words. 

22.  Dredges,  A.  BARIL.     Revue  de  Mecanique,  March  31,  1907.     Illus- 
trated, first  part,  2500  words. 

23.  Dredges  on  the  New  York  State  Barge  Canal.     Engineering,  London, 
September  22,  1911.     Illustrated,  2000  words. 

24.  Dredging,  J.  J.  WEBSTER.     Engineering,  London,  March  4,  1887. 


DIPPER  DREDGES  195 

25.  Dredging  and  Dredging  Appliances,  BRYSON  CUNNINGHAM.     Cassier's 
Magazine,  November,  1905.     Illustrated,  first  part,  2500  words. 

26.  Dredging    Machinery,    A.    W.    ROBINSON.     Engineering,    London, 
January  7  and  14,  1887. 

27.  Dredging  Machines,  JOHN  BOG  ART.     Engineering,  London  -,  August 
29,  1902. 

28.  Dredging  Operations  and  Appliances,  J.  J.  WEBSTER.     Proceedings 
of  Institute  of  Civil  Engineers,  Vol.  LXXXIX. 

29.  The   Dredge    "Independent."     Engineering  Record,    June    1,    1907. 
Illustrated,  1400  words. 

30.  Earth  Excavated  for  Less  than  Six  Cents  Per  Yard.     Engineering 
Record,  February  6,  1915.     1000  words. 

31.  Economic  Dredging  Machinery.     Engineering  News,  April  30,  1914. 
600  words. 

32.  English  and  American  Dredging  Practice,   A.  W.  ROBINSON.     En- 
gineering News,  March  19,  1896.     1600  words. 

33.  Equipment   and    Performance   of   the    British   Columbia   Dredging 
Fleet.     Engineering  Record,  August  23,   1913.     Illustrated,  3000  words. 

34.  Excavating    Methods   and   Equipment   on   the   Cape   Cod   Canal. 
Engineering  News,  February  19,  1914.     Illustrated,  2500  words. 

35.  Excavating  Plant  for  Heavy  Drainage  Work  in  Arkansas.     Engi- 
neering Record,  January  9,  1915.     Illustrated,  1000  words. 

36.  Experiments   with    Automatic    Dredges,    HERR   KAMMERER.     Zeit- 
schrift   des    Vereines    Deutscher    Ingeineur,    April    20,    1912.     Illustrated, 
2000  words. 

37.  European  Sea-going  Dredges  and  Deep  Water  Dredges,  E.  L.  CORT- 
HELL.     Engineering  Magazine,    April  and   May,    1898.     Illustrated,  8000 
words. 

38.  Evolution  of  the   California  Clam-shell   Dredger,    H.   A.   CRAFTS. 
Scientific  American,  September  30,  1905.     Illustrated,  700  words. 

39.  A  15-yd.  Dipper  Dredge.     International  Marine  Engineering,  May, 
1910.     Illustrated,  2500  words. 

40.  Four-yard    Government    Dipper    Dredges.     International     Marine 
Engineering,  June,  1915.     Illustrated,  3000  words. 

41.  Harbor    Dredging,     BRYSON     CUNNINGHAM.     Cassier's    Magazine, 
March,  1912.     Illustrated,  3000  words. 

42.  In  a  Good  Dredge  Crew  Men  are  Trained  to  Fill  Positions  Above 
Them.     Engineering  Record,  December  23,  1916.     Illustrated,  1800  words. 

43.  A  Land-Drainage  Problem  in  Missouri.     Engineering  News,  Septem- 
ber 17,  1914.     Illustrated,  3000  words. 

44.  Land  Drainage  in  Louisiana.     Engineering  News,  August  14,  1913. 
Illustrated,  3000  words. 

45.  Large  Bucket  Broom  Dredge.     Engineering  Record,  July  27,  1895. 

46.  Large  Dipper  Dredge.     Engineering  Record,  January  4,  1913.     250 
words. 

47.  A  Large  Single  Rope  Dipper  Dredge.     Engineering  News,  February 
28,  1901.     Illustrated,  1400  words. 

48.  Largest  Dredging  Plant  in  the  World.     Engineering  News,  May  9, 
1912.     4000  words. 


196    EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

49.  The  Maintenance  of  Drainage  Ditches.     Engineering  News,  May  6, 
1915.     350  words. 

50.  Method  and  Cost  of  Rock  Excavation  for  the  Inlet  Swamp  Drainage 
District,  Illinois,  A.  W.  NAYLOR.     Engineering  &  Contracting,  November 
15,  1916.     800  words. 

51.  Methods  of  Excavating  by  Machinery,  C.  G.  COLMAN.     Common- 
wealth Engineer,  May,  1917.    Illustrated,  1500  words. 

52.  Modern  Dredging  Appliances  for  Waterways,  J.  A.  SBAGER.     Gassier' 's 
Magazine,  January,  1910.     Illustrated,  3500  words. 

53.  A  Modern  Dredging  Plant.     Engineering  News,  September  21,  1893. 

54.  Modern  Machinery  for  Excavating  and  Dredging,  A.  W.  ROBINSON. 
Engineering  Magazine,  March  and  April,  1903. 

55.  New  15-cu.  yd.  Dipper  Dredges  for  the  Panama  Canal.     Engineering 
News,  March  12,  1914.     Illustrated,  2000  words. 

56.  A  Powerful  Dredge  Equipped  with  a  Cable  Storage  Drum.     En- 
gineering News,  February  7,  1907. 

57.  Records  and  Costs  of  Work  of  Dipper  Dredges  Operated  by  the  U.  S. 
Engineers   in   River   and    Harbor   Improvements.     Engineering    &    Con- 
tracting, August  13,  1913.     4000  words. 

58.  Reducing  the  Cost  of  Drainage  Excavation.     Engineering  Record, 
December  25,  1914.     1200  words. 

59.  Scraper    Dragged  from   Extension  Boom   Cleans   Berm  of   Ditch. 
Engineering  Record,  June  5,  1915.     300  words. 

60.  Self-dumping  Dredges  with  Wide  Jaws,    WINTERMEYER.     Sluckauf, 
December  23,  1911.     Illustrated,  2100  words. 

61.  Some  Accounts  of  Dipper  Dredge  Performance  on  the  New  York 
Barge  Canal.     Engineering  &  Contracting,  April  29,  1914.     2000  words. 

62.  Steam  Trip  for  Dredge  Bucket.     Engineering  Record,  January  25, 
1913.     Illustrated,  400  words. 

63.  Ten-yard  Clam-shell  Dredge  for  the  Buffalo,   N.   Y.,   Breakwater 
Construction.     Engineering   News,    February   2,    1899.     Illustrated,    1500 
words. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

/ 

LADDER  DREDGES 

131.  Preliminary. — The  dipper  dredge  which  is  discussed  in 
Chapter  XII  is  essentially  an  American  machine  and  is  very 
little  known  and  used  in  Europe.     On  the  other  hand,  European 
and  South  American  dredging  contractors  have  developed  and 
utilized  to  a  high  degree  of  efficiency  a  type  of  dredge  which  until 
about  1900  was  practically  unknown  in  this  country;  the  ladder 
dredge.     In  California  and  Alaska,  this  form  of  dredge  has  been 
used  for  placer  mining;  on  the  Chicago  Barge  Canal,  the  Welland 
Canal,  the  New  York  State  Barge  Canal  and  the  Panama  Canal 
for   the   construction   of   large   artificial   waterways   and   very 
recently  for  the   cleaning  out  of  channels  in   the  harbors  of 
Boston,  St.  John,  N.  B.,  and  Vancouver,  B.  C. 

132.  Classification. — Ladder    or    elevator    dredges    may    be 
classed  as  to  the  location  of  the  elevator;   (a)  bow- well  and 
(b)  stern-well,  and  also  as  to  the  method  of  disposal  of  the  ex- 
cavated material;  (c)  hopper  and  (d)  barge  loading.     Recently 
(1914)  a  type  of  dredge  with  the  elevator  carried  in  a  well  at  the 
side  of  the  hull,  has  been  devised  for  use  in  the  removal  of  sand 
and  gravel  from  the  beds  of  mid-western  rivers.     Some  ladder 
dredges  are  equipped  with  centrifugal  pumps  for  use  in  dredging 
or  for  unloading  the  excavated  material  from  hoppers  or  barges 
and  its  removal  to  the  shore. 

133.  Construction. — The  ladder  dredge  consists  of  a  hull  on 
which  is  placed  the  operating  machinery  and  the  excavating 
equipment.     The  former  includes  the  engines  for  the  operation 
of  the  bucket  chain,  the  belt  conveyors,  the  hydraulic  monitor, 
the  spuds,  etc.     The  latter  comprises  the  ladder  frame  and  ladder 
or  bucket  chain  and  the  method  of  disposal  of  the  excavated  ma- 
terial, consisting  of  a  hopper  and  a  discharge  channel,  or  of  belt 
conveyors.     The  placer  dredge  is  also  equipped  with  revolving 
screens  and  distributing  channels  for  the  separation  of  the  gold 
from  the  gravel.     A  detailed  view  of  a  steam-driven  placer  dredge 

197 


198     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


LADDER  DREDGES 


199 


Fio.     102. — Ladder    dredge    for    canal   excavation.     (Courtesy    of  the    Bucyrus 

Company.) 


FIG.  103. — A  deep-water  ladder  dredge. 


200    EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

is  shown  in  Fig.  101,  detailed  views  of  a  ladder  dredge  especially 
designed  for  canal  excavation  are  given  in  Fig.  102,  and  a  view 
of  a  typical  deep  water  channel  dredge  is  given  in  Fig.  103. 

The  principal  feature  of  the  excavating  equipment  is  a  ladder, 
which  is  a  framework,  carrying  at  each  end  two  sheaves  over  which 
run  two  endless  chains.  Along  these  chains  are  placed  buckets 
or  scrapers  at  intervals  of  about  3  to  6  ft.  each  holding  from  3  to 
15  cubic  feet.  One  end  of  the  ladder  is  hinged  to  the  hull  and  the 
other  end  is  suspended  from  a  frame  placed  at  the  bow  of  the 
hull.  By  means  of  wire  rope  running  over  sheaves,  the  outer 
end  of  the  ladder  may  be  raised  and  lowered  to  any  desired 
depth.  The  buckets  in  passing  around  the  ladder  scrape  the 
material  from  the  bottom  and  front  of  the  excavation  and  bring 
it  to  the  upper  end  of  the  ladder  above  the  deck.  Power  is 
ap'plied  from  an  engine  to  a  shaft,  which  passes  through  the 
ladder  and  drives  the  chains  to  which  the  buckets  are  attached. 
The  material  is  automatically  discharged  from  the  buckets 
upon  belt  conveyors,  which  carry  it  to  the  spoil  banks  or  to 
barges  for  removal.  In  some  cases  the  excavated  material  falls 
into  a  hopper,  where  it  is  mixed  with  water  and  the  resulting 
fluid  mass  flows  through  spouts  or  troughs  to  the  spoil  areas. 
The  horizontal  movement  of  the  dredge  is  generally  secured 
by  a  single  spud  which  is  placed  and  operated  at  the  stern  of 
the  hull.  In  some  ladder  dredges  the  heel  of  the  ladder  is 
pivoted  to  the  hull,  so  that  the  ladder  may  be  rotated.  How- 
ever, the  ladder  is  generally  fixed  to  the  hull  and  passes  through 
a  well  in  the  bow. 

HULL 

The  hull  or  barge  is  rectangular  in  shape  and  generally  con- 
structed of  heavy  timbers.  The  hull  may  be  built  as  one  struc- 
ture with  a  well  through  the  bow  or  stern  for  the  ladder,  or  as 
two  structures  with  a  space  between  for  the  operation  of  the 
ladder.  The  latter  type  of  construction  was  used  for  the  New 
York  State  Barge  Canal  dredges  so  that  they  might  pass  through 
the  locks  of  the  Erie  Canal. 

The  size  of  the  hull  depends  on  the  capacity  of  the  dredge. 
The  length,  which  varies  from  60  to  120  ft.  is  generally  about 
five  and  one-half  times  the  width,  which  varies  from  30  to  50  ft., 
and  the  depth  varies  from  6  to  10  feet.  The  draft  of  a  completed 
dredge  is  from  4  to  6  feet.  Suitable  cross-frames  of  timber  or 


LADDER  DREDGES  201 

steel  are  used  to  brace  the  hull  and  heavy  planking  with  well- 
calked  joints  forms  the  outer  covering. 

A  few  ladder  dredges  have  had  hulls  composed  of  two  steel 
pontoons,  which  were  held  parallel,  at  a  suitable  distance  apart, 
by  steel  cross-frames. 

LADDER 

The  ladder  is  composed  of  the  chain  of  buckets  and  the  frame 
upon  which  it  revolves.  The  ladder  frame  is  generally  a  struc- 
tural-steel framework  or  trussed  wooden  beam.  The  length  of 
the  ladder  frame  varies  with  the  size  and  capacity  of  the  dredge 
and  the  depth  of  excavation  to  be  made.  The  upper  end  of  the 
ladder  frame  is  hinged  to  the  upper  tumbler-shaft,  while  the  lower 
end  is  suspended  by  heavy  tackle,  from  the  bow  gantry.  The 
frame  carries  at  its  two  ends  tumblers  or  large  metal  barrels. 
The  upper  tumbler  is  revolved  by  power  supplied  from  the  main 
engine  through  a  shaft,  while  the  lower  tumbler  is  revolved  by 
the  friction  of  the  bucket  chain. 

The  upper  tumbler  is  pentagonal,  while  the  lower  tumbler 
is  often  made  hexagonal.  The  five-sided  tumbler  is  the  most 
practical  shape  for  both  tumblers,  as  it  allows  three  adjacent 
sets  of  links  to  come  into  contact  with  the  tumbler  at  a  time 
and  with  continuous  operation  of  the  chain. 

CHAIN  AND  BUCKETS 

The  chain  is  composed  of  buckets,  links,  and  the  connecting 
pins.  The  chain  may  be  arranged  in  two  different  ways,  depend- 
ing on  the  material  to  be  excavated.  For  hard  material,  the 
buckets  are  joined  directly,  following  each  other  closely,  as  shown 
in  Fig  104. 

For  softer  materials,  such  as  would  ordinarily  be  encountered 
in  the  excavation  of  drainage  and  irrigation  ditches,  the  buckets 
are  separated  by  a  link  connection,  making  a  space  between  the 
adjacent  buckets. 

The  buckets  are  generally  made  in  three  parts  and  riveted  to- 
gether. The  bottom  is  made  of  a  specially  treated,  open-hearth, 
basic-steel  casting,  the  sides  of  pressed  steel  and  the  cutting  edge 
of  manganese  steel.  A  continuous  lip  or  cutting  edge  is  generally 
used  for  the  excavation  of  soft  material,  while  teeth  are  used  when 
hard  material  is  to  be  excavated. 


202    EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

The  pins  are  made  of  steel  and  have  a  continuous  bearing  along 
the  rear  edge  of  the  bucket.  The  outer  ends  of  each  pin  are  fixed 
by  set  screws  in  the  bushings  of  the  outer  ends  of  the  links.  The 
buckets  are  fastened  to  the  links  by  rivets  and  the  whole  chain 
is  made  of  such  strength  that  if  the  buckets  encounter  an  ob- 
struction that  they  are  unable  to  move,  the  chain  and  machinery 


FIG.  104. — Bucket  chain  and  gantry  of  ladder  dredge. 

will  be  stopped.  The  buckets  have  a  capacity  from  3  to  13 
cu.  ft.,  the  ordinary  sizes  being  3,  5  and  8J^  cubic  feet.  The 
movement  of  the  buckets  is  slow  and  uniform,  the  chain  moving 
at  a  rate  of  18  to  20  buckets  per  minute. 

GANTRY 

The  lower  end  of  the  ladder  frame  is  suspended  from  a  gantry 
or  inclined  framework,  which  is  placed  at  the  bow  of  the  hull. 
This  gantry  is  generally  built  of  heavy  timbers  or  structural-steel 
shapes.  The  framework  may  be  made  with  either  parallel 


LADDER  DREDGES 


203 


or  inclined  posts.  At  the  top  of  the  frame  are  hung  suitable 
sheaves  over  which  run  the  wire  cable  supporting  the  lower  end 
of  the  ladder  frame.  See  Fig.  104.  The  gantry  has  a  height 
of  from  15  to  25  ft. 


FIG.   105. — Elevator    dredge^excavating    large    irrigation    canal. 
U.  S.  Reclamation  Service.) 


(Courtesy    of 


FIG.   106. — View  of  elevator  end  of  steel  pontoon  dredge  operating  on  New -York 
State  barge  canal.     (Courtesy  of  N.  Y.  State  Engineer.) 


SPOIL  CONVEYORS 


The  material  contained  in  each  bucket  is  automatically  de- 
posited when  the  bucket  turns  over  the  upper  tumbler  and  starts 
on  its  downward  path.  The  material  either  falls  into  a  hopper 
or  upon  a  moving  belt.  The  latter  type  is  generally  used  in  rec- 


204     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

lamation  work.  The  moving  belt  is  either  leather  or  canvas 
and  rubber,  from  2  to  4  ft.  in  width,  and  is  supported  on  a  series 
of  small  wheels,  which  are  spaced  along  a  light  steel  frame. 
This  frame  extends  from  the  hull  to  each  side  of  the  ditch  or  canal 
and  is  supported  as  a  cantilever,  from  an  A-frame.  See  Fig. 
105.  Where  the  excavated  material  has  to  be  carried  to  a  dis- 
tance, the  conveyor  is  often  placed  at  the  stern  of  the  hull  and 
a  series  of  conveyors  supported  on  pontoons  are  used.  See  Fig. 
106. 

SPUDS 

One  or  two  spuds  are  placed  at  the  stern  of  the  hull  to  secure 
stability  of  the  dredge  in  operation,  but  principally  to  provide 
for  the  horizontal  movement  of  the  dredge.  The  spuds  are  gen- 
erally built  of  a  single  timber  with  a  pointed  iron  shoe  at  the  lower 
end,  and  are  usually  operated  by  separate  engines  of  the  type 
used  on  floating-dipper  dredges  as  explained  in  Chapter  XII. 

ENGINES 

The  engines  are  of  the  horizontal,  double-cylinder  type, 
as  described  in  detail  in  Chapter  XII  for  dipper  dredges.  These 
engines  are  gear  connected  to  the  drum  or  winch  machinery. 
The  drums  are  controlled  by  outside  friction  clutches  actuated 
by  small  rams.  Independent  gear  drives  for  the  revolving 
screen  and  the  ladder  are  often  operated  from  the  main  engine 
by  belt  and  pulley  connections.  However,  separate  engines  are 
generally  used  for  the  operation  of  the  spoil  conveyors  and  the 
spuds. 

A  centrifugal  pump,  driven  by  an  independent  engine,  is 
generally  used  to  furnish  water  for  a  hydraulic  motor,  for  the 
hoppers  (if  there  are  any)  and  for  perforated  pipes,  which  ex- 
tend along  the  sides  of  the  belt  conveyor  for  cleansing  purposes. 
Steam  pumps  of  standard  type  are  used  to  supply  the  condensers, 
feed-water  heaters,  and  the  boilers  with  a  suitable  water  supply. 

When  electric  power  is  used,  individual  motors  are  generally 
mounted  on  the  winch  drum  or  drive  frame  and  gear  connected 
by  a  pinion.  These  motors  may  receive  current  from  a  generator 
operated  by  a  steam  plant  on  the  dredge  or  from  a  steam  or 
water-power  plant  located  on  the  shore. 


LADDER  DREDGES 


BOILERS 


205 


The  boiler  is  generally  of  the  Scotch  marine  type  and  is  mounted 
on  the  floor  of  the  hull  at  the  rear  of  the  dredge.  It  should  be 
of  more  than  the  estimated  capacity  to  supply  the  engines  and 
be  operated  at  a  working  pressure  of  about  125  pounds.  See 
Chapters  VI  and  XII,  pages  38  and  175. 

DISPOSAL  EQUIPMENT 

The  disposition  of  the  excavated  material  depends  upon  the 
character  of  the  work.  In  placer-mining  operations,  the  dredge 
is  provided  with  a  hopper  into  which  the  material  falls.  Then  the 
material  passes  through  a  revolving  screen  and  upon  a  screen 


FIG.  107. — Ladder  dredge  provided  with  trough  for  discharging  excavation  into 
barges.     (Courtesy  of  the  Bucyrus  Co.) 

trough  where  the  gold  is  collected  by  amalgam  plates.  In  the 
excavation  of  canals  or  stream  beds  the  materials  pass  from 
the  hopper  into  a  chute  or  trough  which  discharges  into  barges, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  107,  or  directly  from  the  bucket  chain  to  belt 
conveyors  which  carry  it  to  the  spoil  banks  along  either  side 
of  the  channel,  Fig.  105.  In  some  cases,  when  the  material 
is  to  be  conveyed  for  some  distance,  the  conveyor  is  placed  at 
the  stern  of  the  hull  and  this  charges  into  a  series  of  other  con- 
veyors supported  on  pontoons.  See  Fig.  106. 

134.  Method  of  Operation. — The  outer  end  of  the  ladder  is 
lowered  until  the  bucket  chain  is  in  contact  with  the  bed  of  the 
stream.  Each  bucket  in  the  revolution  of  the  chain,  removes  a 


206     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

slice  of  material  as  it  comes  into  contact  with  the  soil.  At 
the  top  of  the  ladder,  the  buckets  in  turning  over  the  upper 
tumbler,  dump  their  contents  into  a  hopper  which  discharges 
into  a  screen  or  directly  upon  a  belt  conveyor.  The  ladder 
is  gradually  lowered  as  the  excavation  proceeds. 

The  dredge  is  swung  from  side  to  side  across  the  channel 
by  wire  cables  attached  to  trees  along  the  shore  and  to  winch 
drums  on  the  hull.  To  move  the  dredge  ahead  the  spuds  are 
alternately  raised  and  lowered  as  the  dredge  is  swung  from  one 
side  to  the  other. 


FIG.   108. — Ladder  dredge  excavating  irrigation  canal. 

mation  Service.) 


(Courtesy  of  the  Recla- 


When  high  banks  are  to  be  removed  it  is  customary  to  use 
ajarge  hydraulic  monitor,  which  is  placed  near  the  ladder  frame, 
and  above  the  deck  of  the  hull  at  the  bow.  Figure  108  shows 
an  elevator  dredge,  equipped  with  a  monitor,  excavating  a  large 
irrigation  canal  in  the  West. 

The  machinery  of  the  dredge  is  usually  controlled  by  an  op- 
erator, who  is  located  in  a  small  cabin  placed  near  the  bow  and 
above  the  machinery  house.  Besides  the  operator  there  are  re- 
quired an  engineer,  who  has  general  charge  of  the  machinery, 
a  fireman  who  runs  the  boiler  of  the  steam  equipment,  an  oiler, 


LADDER  DREDGES  207 


a  deck  hand  for  general  service  on  the  dredge,  a  man  who  has 
charge  of  the  operation  and  control  of  the  conveyors,  and  one 
or  more  men  who  have  charge  of  the  shore  conveyors  or  barges. 

Each  dredge  requires  the  service  of  one  tug  and  from  4  to 
8  scows,  depending  upon  capacity  of  the  dredge,  size  of  channel, 
character  of  materials,  etc.  The  scows  may  be  of  steel  or  timber 
and  are  generally  of  the  bottom-dumping  type  with  several 
independent  compartments. 

135.  Cost  of  Operation. — As  elevator  dredges  are  generally 
built  to  meet  special  conditions  of  service,  it  is  difficult  to  give  any 
accurate  statement  of  the  average  cost  of  operation.  However, 
in  order  to  suggest  the  cost  of  operation  in  canal  excavation, 
the  following  statement  of  the  use  of  the  ladder  dredges  in  the 
construction  of  an  irrigation  canal  on  a  Reclamation  Service 
project  is  given. 

The  channel  had  a  total  length  of  about  20  miles  and  in  many 
places  the  banks  were  high  on  one  or  both  sides.  On  fills  and  shal- 
low cuts,  bulkheads  were  built  along  the  right  of  way  on  the  lower 
bank  to  keep  the  wet  material  from  flowing  on  to  adjacent  fields. 
The  material  excavated  varied  from  a  loose  gravel  to  hard-pan, 
which  in  places  had  to  be  blasted. 

The  dredge  used  was  a  Bucyrus  ladder  dredge,  equipped  with 
steam  power  and  a  3J£-cu.  ft.  continuous  bucket  chain.  The 
hull  was  built  of  timber,  with  a  length  of  82  ft.,  a  width  of 
30  ft.,  a  depth  of  6  ft.  6  in.,  and  drew  5  ft.  of  water.  Steam  was 
furnished  by  two  locomotive-type  boilers,  44  in.  in  diameter 
and  18  ft.  long,  and  having  a  rated  capacity  of  80  horsepower. 
The  main  drive  and  ladder  hoist  were  driven  by  an  8  X  12-in. 
double  horizontal  engine  of  70  horsepower.  The  winch  machinery 
for  operating  the  spuds  and  swinging  the  dredge  was  driven  by  a 
two-cylinder,  6  X  6-in.,  double  horizontal  engine  of  20  horse- 
power. The  belt  conveyors  were  operated  by  two  7  X  10-in., 
single-cylinder,  center-crank,  horizontal  engines  of  18  horsepower. 
A  No.  1  Hendy  hydraulic  giant  was  mounted  on  the  bow  of  the 
dredge  and  water  was  forced  through  it  by  a  two-stage,  6-in., 
centrifugal  pump,  belted  to  a  10  X  12  in.,  single-cylinder,  upright 
engine  of  80  horsepower.  The  giant  was  used  to  remove  banks 
above  the  water  level  and  beyond  the  reach  of  the  bucket  chain. 
See  Fig.  105.  Two  belt  conveyors,  one  on  each  side  of  the  dredge, 
were  used  for  the  disposal  of  the  excavated  material.  Each 
conveyor  was  72  ft.  long  and  consisted  of  a  steel  framework 


208     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


supporting  a  7-ply,  32-in.,  rubber  conveying  belt.     Figure  108 
shows  the  dredge  in  operation. 

The  operating  force  consisted  of  8  men  and  4  horses.     Follow- 
ing is  a  schedule  of  the  labor  expense  per  day: 

EXPENSE  SCHEDULE  OP  DAILY  LABOR 

Labor  Day  rate 

Superintendent $7 . 50 

Operator 5 . 00 

Engineer 4.67 

Spudman 3 . 83 

Fireman 3 . 33 

Oiler..  3.00 


Deckman 

Man  and  team . 


2.50 
4.50 


The  following  tabulation  gives  the  total  and  unit  cost  of  the 
work: 

COST  OP  WORK  BY  LADDER  DREDGE 


C( 

)St 

Total 

Unit  (per  cu.  yd.) 

Labor  (dredge) 

$29  960  63 

$0  030 

Labor  (spoil  bank)  

31,159  06 

0  034 

Fuel 

33  043  07 

0  036 

Plant  maintenance  
Plant  depreciation  .    .  . 

52,327.40 
41,432  53 

0.057 
0  045 

Total  

$187,922  69 

$0  202 

Engineering  and  administration  .... 

28,154.41 

0.031 

Grand  total      

$216,077  10 

$0  233 

136.  Field  of  Usefulness. — The  elevator  dredge  has  been  uni- 
versally used  in  Europe  for  harbor  and  canal  excavation  and 
notably  on  the  construction  of  the  Suez  Canal,  the  Panama 
Canal,  and  the  New  York  State  Barge  Canal.  In  this  country 
the  ladder  dredge  has  not  come  into  general  use  on  account  of 
the  high  initial  cost  of  the  plant.  The  average  American  con- 
tractor prefers  to  use  a  dipper  dredge  costing  about  $40,000, 
rather  than  a  ladder  dredge  requiring  an  investment  of  about 
$100,000,  in  order  that  he  may  secure  immediate  results  on  a 
less  capital  charge. 


LADDER  DREDGES  209 

The  elevator  dredge  is  efficient  in  the  excavation  of  all  classes 
of  material  from  silt  to  hard-pan  and  the  softer  stratified  rocks. 
This  dredge  cannot  work  to  advantage  in  narrow  channels,  and 
hence  is  not  adapted  to  the  excavation  of  small  canals  and  ditches 
or  the  dredging  out  of  narrow  rivers.  In  such  cases  the  dipper 
dredge  should  be  used.  When  the  banks  are  high,  difficulty  is 
experienced  in  depositing  the  excavated  material.  When  the 
banks  are  low,  dikes  or  bulkheads  must  be  erected  to  prevent  the 
soft  material  from  flowing  back  into  the  channel  or  over  adjacent 
land.  When  the  sides  of  the  channel  are  to  be  sloped,  the  bucket 
chain  must  be  gradually  raised  and  lowered  as  the  dredge  is  swung 
over  the  side.  Trouble  is  often  experienced  in  the  operation  of 
the  spoil  conveyors  and  water  jets  are  required  to  keep  them  clean. 
The  excavated  material  is  generally  so  wet  that  the  deposition 
of  the  material  in  uniform  spoil  banks  along  the  shore  is  a  diffi- 
cult matter. 

The  proper  sphere  of  usefulness  of  the  ladder  dredge  is  in  large 
canal,  river,  and  harbor  work,  where  there  are  wide,  long  reaches 
and  a  large  amount  of  dense  material  to  be  removed.  In  such 
cases,  the  scow  method  of  removal  should  generally  be  used. 

137.  Bibliography. — For  further  information,  consult  the 
following: 

Books 

1.  "Dredges  and  Dredging,"  by  CHARLES  PRELINI,  published  in  1911  by 
D.  Van  Nostrand,  New  York.    294  pages,  6  in.  X  9  in.,  figures.    Cost,  $3.00. 

2.  "The  Improvement  of  Rivers,"  by  THOMAS  and  WATT,  published  in 
1903  by  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  New  York.     9  in.  X  11^  in.,  772  pages,  83 
figures.     Cost,  $7.50. 

3.  "Regulation  of  Rivers,"  by  J.  L.  VAN  ORNUM,  published  in  1914  by 
McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  New  York.     6  in.  X  9  in.,  404  pages,  99 
figures.     Cost,  $4.00. 

Magazine  Articles 

1.  Boom  Dredge  and  Conveyors,  H.  E.  JEAINU.     Memoirs  de  la  Societe 
des.  Ingenieures  Civils  de  France,  May,  1904.     Illustrated,  1500  words. 

2.  Bucket    Dredges,    R.    RICHTER.     Zeitschrift   des    Vereines    Deutscher 
Ingenieure,  June  19,  1909.     Illustrated,  first  part,  4500  words. 

3.  Bucket  Dredging  Machine.     Engineering,  June  23,  1899.     Illustrated, 
500  words. 

4.  Construction  Work  on  the  New  York  State  Barge  Canal.     Engineering 
News,  July  29,  1909.     1800  words. 

5.  Cost  of  Excavating  4,151,000  cu.  yd.  of  Material  with  51  Dipper  and 
Bucket  Dredges  in  1911.     Engineering-Contracting,  October  16,  1912. 

14 


210     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

6.  A   Desirable    Method   of   Dredging   Channels   through   River   Bars' 
S.   MAXINOFF.     Transactions  of  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers 
December,  1903,  and  January,  1904.     Illustrated,  4300  words. 

7.  Double  Ladder  Dredger  for  the  Swansea  Harbor  Trust.     Engineering, 
London,  July  13,  1888. 

8.  The  Drainage  of  the  Valley  of  Mexico,  J.  B.  BODY.     Engineering 
Record,  August  10,  1901. 

9.  Dredges,  A.  BARIL.     Revue  de  Mecanique,   March  31,   1907.     Illus- 
trated, 7000  words. 

10.  Dredges  and  Dredging  Appliances,  BRYSON  CUNNINGHAM.     Gassier' 's 
Magazine,  November,  1905,     Illustrated,  first  part,  2500  words. 

11.  The  Dredger  "  PERCY  SANDERSON"  for  the  Danube  Regulation  Works. 
Engineering,  London,  August  9,  1895. 

12.  Dredges   on  the   New   York   State   Barge   Canal.     The   Engineer, 
London,  September  22,  1911.     Illustrated,  2000  words. 

13.  Dredging,  J.  J.  WEBSTER.     Engineering,  London,  March  4,  1887. 

14.  Dredging  Appliances.     Cassier's  Magazine,  November.  1905. 

15.  Dredging  Equipment  for  Harbor  Maintenance.     Engineering  Record, 
March  8,  1913.     1800  words. 

16.  Dredging  in  the  Mersey  Dock  Estate.     Engineering,  London,  May 
30,  and  June  6,  1890. 

17.  Dredging  Machinery,  C.  H.  HOLT.     De  Ingenieure,  November  30, 
1901.     4000  words. 

18.  Dredging    Machinery,    A.    W.    ROBINSON.     Engineering,    London, 
January  7  and  14,  1887. 

19.  Dredging  Machines,  JOHN  BOGART.     Engineering,  London,  August 
9,  1902.     5600  words. 

20.  Dredging  Machine  for  the  Clarente.     Engineering,  London,  December 
2,  1895. 

21.  Dredging  Operations  and  Appliances,  J.  J.  WEBSTER.     Engineering 
News,  July  16  and  23,  1887. 

22.  A  Dutch  Dredge  for  Australia.     The  Engineer,  London,  September 
1,  1911.     250  words. 

23.  The  Economics  of  Ladder  Dredges  and  Steam  Hoppers.    Institution  of 
Civil  Engineers,  No.  3979,  1915. 

24.  Electrically  Driven  Ladder  Dredge.     Engineering,  London,  October 
9,  1896. 

25.  Electrically  Operated  Dredges,  R.  RICHTER.     Zeitschrift  des  Vereines 
Deutscher  Ingenieure,   June  12,   1909.     Illustrated,  first  part,  3300  words. 

26.  English  and  American  Dredging  Practice,  A.  W.  ROBINSON.     Engi- 
neering News,  March  19,  1896. 

27.  Equipment  and   Performance   of  the   British   Columbia   Dredging 
Fleet.     Engineering  Record,  August  23,  1913.     Illustrated,  3000  words. 

28.  Excavation  Methods  with  Dredges  in  Improving  the  Low-Water 
Channel  of  the  Po.     II  Monitore  Tecinco,  Milan,  Italy,  July  30,  1915.     3500 
words. 

29.  Foreign   Ladder    Dredges.     Engineering   News,    January    15,    1914. 
Illustrated,  2000  words. 


LADDER  DREDGES  211 

30.  The  French  Bucket  Dredger  Bassure  de  Baas.     International  Marine 
Engineering,    May,    1912.     Illustrated,  1500  words. 

31.  German    and    American    Electrically    Operated    Bucket    Dredges, 
HUBERT  HERMANNS.     Elektrische  Kraftbetriebe  und  Bahnen,  December  24, 
1910.     Illustrated,  4000    words. 

32.  The   "Hercules   Dredgers"   for  the    Panama    Canal.     Engineering 
News,  February  3,  1883. 

33.  Hopper  Dredger  "La  Puissante."     The  Engineer,  London,  September 
7,  1900.     Illustrated,  900  words. 

34.  Hopper    Dredger    on   the    Panama    Canal.     Engineering,    London, 
October  20,  1911. 

35.  Ladder  Dredge  on  the  Fox  River,  Wisconsin.     Engineering  News, 
October  25,  1906. 

36.  Ladder  Dredges  in  North  America.     Engineering  News,  February 
5,  1914.     500  words. 

37.  Ladder    Dredges   with    Side    Ladder    Frames.     Engineering   News, 
November  12,  1914.     Illustrated,  900  words. 

38.  A  Large  Elevator  Dredge  for  Work  in  Boston  Harbor.     Engineering 
News,  January  27,  1910.     Illustrated,  800  words. 

39.  New  Bucket  Dredgers  for  the  Kaiser  Wilhelm  Canal.     International 
Marine  Engineering,  May,  1910.     Illustrated,  2500  words. 

40.  New  Dredger  for  the  Clyde.     The  Engineer,  London,  April  27,  1905. 
Illustrated,  800  words. 

41.  The  New  Joinini  River  Dredge,   M.  LIDY.     Annales  des  Fonts  et 
Chaussees,  Vol.  VI,  1908. 

42.  Panama   Canal    Dredge  "Corozal,"  WILLIAM    G.    COMBER.     Engi- 
neering News,  January  25,  1912.     Illustrated,  2500  words. 

43.  Petroleum    Driven    Dredge,   M.    WENDER.     Annales   des   Fonts    et 
Chaussees,  1  Trimestre,  1901.     3500  words. 

44.  Powerful    Dredger   for    Panama    Canal.      The    Engineer,    London, 
October  20,  1911.     Illustrated,  400  words. 

45.  Recent  Dredge  Construction,  PAULMANN  and  BLAUM.     Zeitschrift  des 
Vereines    Deutscher    Ingenieure,    June    19,    1909.     Illustrated,    first  part, 
4500  words. 

46.  Recent  Improvements  in  Dredging  Machinery,  A.  W.  ROBINSON. 
Engineering  News,  December  4,  1886. 

47.  The  Sea-going  Bucket  Dredge,  FEDOR  SOLODOFF,  A.  V.  OVERBEEKE. 
Zeitschrift  des  Vereines  Deutscher  Ingenieure,  April  7,  1906.     Illustrated, 
1500  words. 

48.  A   Sea-going   Bucket   Dredge,    DR.    ALFRED    GRADENWITZ.     Inter- 
national Marine  Engineering,,  November,  1907.     Illustrated,  1600  words. 

49.  Stern  Delivery  Dredger  on  the  Leeds  and  Liverpool  Canal.     Engi- 
neering, London,  June  16,  1893. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
HYDRAULIC  DREDGES 

138.  Preliminary. — During   the   past    quarter  of  a  century, 
the  excavation  and  maintenance  of  the  rivers,  lakes  and  harbors 
of  this  country  have  developed  the  use  of  the  hydraulic  dredge. 
This  type  of  excavator  like  the  ladder  dredge  has  been  largely 
developed  and  used  in  European  countries  and  has  proved  to  be 
most  efficient  where  a  machine  of  large  capacity  was  required  for 
the  removal  of  the  softer  and  wetter  soils,  such  as  sand  and  silt. 
The  hydraulic  dredge  has  during  recent  years,  been  used  success- 
fully in  the  construction  of  large  canals  and  artificial  waterways ; 
notably  the  Chicago  Drainage  Canal,  the  New  York  State  Barge 
Canal,  the  Panama  Canal  and  some  of  the  larger  distribution 
canals  of  the  Reclamation  Service  Projects. 

139.  Classification. — Hydraulic  dredges  may  be  classified  as 
to  the  method  of  operation  and  the  disposition  of  the  excavated 
material;  the  spud  dredge,  the  sea-going  dredge  and  the  Fruhling 
dredge. 

The  first  type,  the  spud  dredge  is  especially  adapted  for  channel 
excavation  and  maintenance  where  the  distance  the  material 
must  be  pumped  is  not  greater  than  about  one-quarter  of  a  mile. 
In  narrow  channels  or  rough  water  the  spud  dredge  works  at  a 
great  disadvantage  on  account  of  the  permanent  attachment  to 
the  discharge-pipe  line,  which  must  be  continually  maintained 
while  the  dredge  is  in  operation,  and  suitable  provision  made  for 
passing  vessels  and  stormy  weather. 

The  spud  dredge  is  generally  used  in  the  improvements  of  rivers 
and  harbors,  and  to  provide  for  the  various  conditions  of  excava- 
tion, three  different  types  are  used.  This  classification  is  based 
on  the  method  of  excavation  of  " feeding."  The  three  types 
may  be  stated  as  follows: 

1.  Lateral  feeding. 

2.  Forward  feeding. 

3.  Radial  feeding. 

1.  The  best  known  example  of  lateral  feeding  suction  dredge 
is  the  "J.  Israel  Tarte,"  designed  by  Mr.  A.  W.  Robinson  and 

212 


HYDRAULIC  DREDGES 


213 


used  on  the  maintenance  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River  Ship  Canal. 
The  peculiar  feature  of  this  dredge  is  the  sideways  feeding  with 
the  cutter  in  contact  with  the  bottom.  The  lateral  pressure  on 
the  girder  supporting  the  suction  pipe  and  cutter  is  taken  up  by 
extending  the  girder  flanges  so  as  to  bear  against  the  sides  of  the 
central  well. 

2.  The  forward  feeding  type  of  hydraulic  dredge  is  in  general 
use  on  the  Mississippi  River.  The  dredges  of  this  type  have  the 
axis  of  the  centrifugal  pump  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  boat  and 
on  the  center  line  of  the  dredge.  The  suction  pipes  are  provided 
with  vertical  flanged  joints  instead  of  the  radial  joints  used  on  the 
other  types  of  dredges. 


FIG.   109. — Side  view  of  hydraulic  dredge. 

Co.) 


(Courtesy  of  Norbom  Engineering 


3.  The  radial  feed  dredge  is  equipped  with  a  cutter  which  de- 
scribes an  arc  of  a  circle  about  the  spud  as  a  center.  The  suction 
pipe  is  provided  with  a  universal  joint  so  that  it  can  swing  later- 
ally and  also  be  raised  and  lowered. 

Sea-going  hopper  dredges  may  be  either  self-contained  with  their 
own  propelling  machinery  or  use  a  tug  boat  to  move  them  to 
and  from  the  dumping  grounds.  This  type  of  hydraulic  dredge 
is  best  adapted  to  the  excavation  of  the  coarser  materials  such 
as  sand  and  gravel  in  deep  water  and  where  the  length  of  haul  is 
greater  than  a  quarter  of  a  mile.  The  hopper  dredge  is  also 
serviceable  on  lakes  or  harbors  where  storms  and  rough  water 
conditions  occasionally  occur. 


214     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


FIG.  110. — Plan  of  hydraulic 
dredge.  (Courtesy  of  Norbom 
Engineering  Co.) 


The  Fruhling  dredge  is  the  most 
recent  development  of  the  hydraulic 
type  of  excavator  and  is  especially 
adapted  to  the  removal  of  silt  and 
soft  mud.  It  is  essentially  a  sea-going 
hopper  dredge  equipped  with  a 
dredging  head  of  special  design. 
This  head  is  box-shaped  and  is 
provided  with  a  cutting  edge  which 
loosens  the  material  as  the  dredge 
moves  along  at  a  speed  of  about  5 
miles  per  hour. 

140.  Construction. — The  essential 
parts  of  a  hydraulic  dredge  are 
similar  for  all  types;  a  revolving 
cutter,  a  centrifugal  pump  and  the 
operating  machinery.  Figures  109 
and  110  give  detailed  views  of  a 
small  dredge  of  the  spud  type  and 
Fig.  Ill  gives  a  general  view  of  a 
sea-going  hopper  dredge. 

The  entire  machinery  is  suitably 
mounted  on  a  floating  barge  or  hull. 
Attached  to  the  pump  is  the  suction 
pipe  with  a  flexible,  movable  joint,  so 
that  the  lower  or  outer  end  can  be 
raised  and  lowered  to  any  desirable 
depth.  In  some  types  of  dredges  a 
horizontal  range  is  secured  by  swing- 
ing the  hull  of  the  dredge  from  side 
to  side  by  means  of  lines  attached 
to  shore  anchors.  In  the  Von  Schmidt 
type  of  hydraulic  dredge,  the  suction 
pipe  which  extends  from  the  end  of 
the  hull  is  placed  on  a  table  which 
rotates  on  a  circular  track.  By  ro- 
tating the  table  the  suction  pipe  may 
be  revolved  through  an  angle  of  120 
degrees.  The  pipe  is  made  of  wrought 
iron,  or  steel,  in  sections  which  can 
be  telescoped;  the  lower  and  small 
sections  sliding  up  into  the  upper 


HYDRAULIC  DREDGES 


215 


and  larger  ones.  At  the  lower  end  of  the  suction  pipe  is  placed 
the  mouth  pipe,  which  consists  of  a  circular  hood.  On  the 
periphery  of  this  hood  are  generally  placed  a  series  of  knives, 
which  form  a  revolving  cutter.  This  is  made  to  revolve  by  a  shaft 
and  gearing  as  shown  in  Figs.  109  and  110. 

By  use  of  the  cutter  the  material  to  be  excavated  is  loosened 
up  and  disintegrated  and  by  dilution  with  the  water  is  readily 


FIG.  111. — A  sea-going  hopper  dredge. 


sucked  up  by  the  pump,  through  the  suction  pipe.  The  cutters 
thus  allow  the  use  of  this  type  of  dredge  in  the  excavation  of  a 
very  stiff  or  hard  clay.  A  water  jet  has  in  some  cases  been  used 
to  remove  and  dissolve  the  material  at  the  end  of  the  suction 
pipe,  but  this  detail  has  recently  been  chiefly  supplanted  by  the 
revolving  cutter. 


PUMP 


The  most  important  element  in  the  construction  of  a  hydraulic 
dredge  is  the  pump,  which  draws  the  excavated  material  up 


216    EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

through  the  suction  pipe  and  then  discharges  it  through  the 
discharge  pipe  to  barges  or  to  spoil  banks  on  the  shore.  The 
pump  is  the  governing  factor  in  determining  the  efficiency  of 
a  dredge.  The  centrifugal  pump  is  used  exclusively  for  this 
work  on  account  of  its  being  of  a  rough  and  adaptable  type  of 
construction  and  range  and  ease  of  operation.  Where  large 
quantities  of  solid  material  pass  through  the  pump  (as  high  as 
70  per  cent,  solids  are  often  pumped)  it  is  necessary  to  use  a  pump 
which  does  not  require  close  adjustment  of  parts  and  where 
the  parts  are  few  in  number,  simple  in  operation  and  easy  of 
replacement. 

A  centrifugal  pump  consists  of  a  shell  of  circular  form  with  two 
apertures,  one  on  the  periphery,  the  other  at  the  center  of  one 
side.  Inside  this  shell  or  outer  casing  revolves  a  set  of  vanes 
mounted  on  a  shaft  which  extends  transversely  through  the 
center  of  the  casing.  These  vanes  are  the  only  part  of  the  pump 
subject  to  great  wear  and  the  casing  is  generally  constructed  in 
two  sections  so  that  the  top  half  can  be  removed  and  the  shaft 
and  runner  taken  out.  In  the  so-called  Edwards  Cataract  Pump, 
provision  is  made  for  the  repair  of  the  runner  in  the  following  man- 
ner. The  vanes  are  made  in  two  parts;  the  inner  section,  which 
is  made  as  a  part  of  the  shaft  extends  two-thirds  of  the  distance 
from  the  shaft  to  the  inside  of  the  casing,  and  the  outer  section, 
which  is  a  piece  of  metal  bolted  to  the  inner  section  and  forming 
an  extension  to  the  vane.  The  bolts  pass  through  slots  in  the 
extension  plate  and  this  allows  the  plate  to  be  forced  to  one  side 
or  bent  away  from  a  heavy  body  (such  as  a  stone  or  piece  of  metal) 
which  may  come  in  contact  with  it.  This  prevents  the  breakage 
of  the  runner  as  a  whole.  The  plates  are  made  of  light  iron  and 
can  be  easily  replaced  at  a  small  cost  by  the  removal  of  a  hand- 
hole  cover  on  the  casing  and  the  bolting  on  of  a  new  plate.  The 
opening  in  the  side  of  the  casing  is  the  admission  orifice  to  which 
the  suction  pipe  is  attached  and  through  which  the  material 
enters  to  the  casing.  The  steel  suction  pipe  is  generally  15  in. 
to  30  in.  in  diameter  and  varies  in  length  from  10  to  60  feet.  To 
the  opening  in  the  periphery  of  the  casing  is  attached  the  dis- 
charge pipe,  which  varies  in  diameter  from  6  to  48  inches.  The 
following  table  gives  the  sizes  and  nominal  capacities  of  a  type 
of  centrifugal  pump  especially  made  for  dredging. 


HYDRAULIC  DREDGES 


217 


TABLE  XII. — SIZES  OP  CENTRIFUGAL  PUMPS 


Diameter  of  dis- 
charge, 
inches 

Capacity,  gallons 
per  minute 

Capacity, 
cubic  feet 
per  second 

Horse  power  required 
for  each  foot  of 
total  head 

6 

880 

1.965 

0.446 

8 

1,565 

3.495 

0.794 

10 

2,450 

5.45 

1.192 

12 

3,525 

7.85 

1.655 

15 

5,500 

12.25 

2.49 

18 

7,920 

17.65 

3.47 

20 

9,780 

21.8 

4.14 

24 

14,100 

31.4 

5.75 

30 

22,000 

49.0 

8.71 

36 

31,700 

70.7 

12.18 

42 

43,200 

96.2 

16.10 

48 

56,350 

125.5 

20.45 

The  above  capacities  and  horse  power  are  based  upon  a  velocity 
of  discharge  of  10  ft.  per  second.     For  other  velocities  the  ca- 


FIQ.  112. — Centrifugal  pump  of  hydraulic  dredge. 

pacities  would  be  in  proportion.  Figure  112  shows  a  20-in.  cen- 
trifugal pump  of  the  type  used  on  the  hydraulic  dredges  operating 
on  the  New  York  State  Barge  Canal. 


218     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

ENGINES 

The  pump  of  a  hydraulic  dredge  is  generally  direct  connected 
to  a  steam  engine  of  the  vertical,  marine  type.  For  the  small 
sizes  and  capacities  compound  engines  are  used,  but  where  the 
engines  are  designed  for  hard  service  and  to  operate  against 
high  heads,  the  triple-expansion  type  is  used.  All  marine  engines 
for  pumping  service  should  be  in  excess  of  the  requirements. 
They  should  be  provided  with  extra  large  bearing  surfaces  and 
with  an  automatic  sight-feed  oil  service  which  will  allow  for 
continuous  operation.  The  crank  shaft  should  be  forged  out 
of  one  piece  of  steel  and  especial  care  taken  in  the  welding  of  the 


FIG.  113. — Machinery  of  hydraulic  dredge. 

vanes  at  their  junction  with  the  shaft.  The  size  and  construc- 
tional details  of  the  engine  used  depend  on  the  size  of  the  dredge 
and  the  work  to  be  done.  Further  detailed  information  concern- 
ing engines,  as  well  as  the  other  parts  of  a  hydraulic  dredge  will 
be  given  later  in  the  description  of  some  hydraulic  dredges  and 
their  work. 

Figure  113  shows  the  winch  machinery  of  a  20-in.  Bucyrus 
hydraulic  dredge,  used  for  hoisting  the  spuds,  raising  the  ladder, 
swinging  the  dredge,  etc. 

HULL 

The  hull  of  a  hydraulic  dredge  is  rectangular  in  shape  and 
with  a  length  of  about  three  and  one-half  times  the  width.  The 


HYDRAULIC  DREDGES  219 

draft  is  made  as  small  as  possible  and  generally  varies  from  3  to  9 
feet.  This  requires  a  depth  of  hull  varying  from  6  to  1 5  feet.  The 
size  of  the  hull  depends  on  the  capacity  of  the  dredge.  The  hulls 
are  constructed  of  both  steel  and  wood,  but  experience  has  shown 
that  steel  is  preferable  on  account  of  its  greater  strength,  less  cost 
of  maintenance,  and  its  ability  to  withstand  the  pounding  and 
vibratory  strains  of  the  machinery.  Cross-frames  of  steel  or 
wood  are  spaced  from  1^  to  2  3^  ft.  on  centers  and  connect  the 
keelsons  and  deck  beams.  The  framework  is  covered  with  steel 
plates  or  heavy  wooden  planking.  The  machinery  is  generally 
placed  on  a  lower  deck,  while  a  superstructure  or  deck  house 
extends  over  the  greater  part  of  the  length  and  contains  the  living 
quarters  for  the  crew  and  the  operating  house  at  the  forward  end. 

SPUD   FRAME 

At  the  stern  is  placed  a  trapezoidal-shaped  frame  which 
suspends  two  vertical  spuds  by  means  of  sheaves  and  cables  lead- 
ing to  the  engine  drums.  The  spuds  are  generally  single  timbers 
of  Douglas  fir,  long  leaf  pine  or  oak  and  are  of  sufficient  length  to 
reach  the  bottom  of  the  excavation  during  high  water. 

BOILER 

The  prime  mover  is  either  steam  or  electricity.  Steam  is 
generated  by  boilers  usually  of  the  Scotch  marine  type.  Where 
electricity  is  used  the  power  is  supplied  either  from  a  steam 
engine  or  from  a  power  station  independent  of  the  dredge.  The 
latter  method  of  operation  is  the  more  economical  and  the  more 
convenient  to  use  when  the  dredge  is  operating  near  a  steam  or 

hydro-electric  power  plant. 

* 

DISCHARGE  PIPE 

The  discharge-pipe  line  of  the  spud  type  of  dredge  extends  from 
the  pump  through  the  stern  of  the  hull  and  consists  of  iron  or 
steel  pipe  varying  in  diameter  from  12  to  48  inches.  The  pipe  is 
supported  on  wooden  or  steel  pontoons,  and  the  adjacent  sections 
of  pipe  are  connected  by  heavy  rubber  sleeves  fitting  over  the 
bell-shaped  ends  of  the  pipe.  In  recently  built  dredges,  the 
joints  of  the  discharge  pipe  have  been  formed  into  an  iron  ball- 
and-socket  joint.  Longitudinal  and  lateral  stresses  are  con- 


220    EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

trolled  and  relieved  by  steel  springs,  arranged  somewhat  as  in  the 
draft  rigging  of  railway  cars.  Figure  114  shows  a  discharge  pipe 
of  a  dredge  operating  on  the  New  York  Barge  Canal. 


FIG.  114. — Discharge    pipe    of    hydraulic    dredge.     (Courtesy   of  N.    Y.    State 

Engineer.) 

141.  Method  of  Operation. — The  spud  type  dredge  is  held 
in  position  by  cables  which  extend  from  the  main  or  hoisting 


FIG.   115. — Cutter  and  suction  pipe  of   hydraulic  dredge.     (Courtesy  of  N.  Y. 

State  Engineer.) 

engine  to  an  anchorage  on  either  side  of  the  bow,  and  by  the  two 
spuds  in  the  stern  of  the  hull.     By  alternately  raising  a  spud 


HYDRAULIC  DREDGES  221 

and  winding  up  and  unwinding  the  cables,  the  dredge  may  be 
swung  from  side  to  side  so  as  to  cover  a  wide  area. 

The  revolving  cutter  excavates  the  material,  which  may  vary 
from  silt  to  hard-pan.  See  Fig.  115.  The  disintegrated  material, 
diluted  by  water,  is  sucked  up  through  the  suction  pipe  into  the 
pump  and  then  forced  out  through  the  discharge  pipe  which  is 
carried  by  pontoons,  and  discharges  into  scows  or  out  upon  area 
which  is  to  be  filled  in. 

The  Fruhling  (the  latest  type  of  sea-going  hopper  dredge)  op- 
erates while  moving  at  a  speed  of  about  5  knots  per  hour.  The 
outer  end  of  the  girder  with  its  suction  and  pressure  pipes  is 
lowered  to  the  bottom  and  as  the  hull  moves  along,  the  heavy 
head  with  its  cutting  edge  is  gradually  filled  with  material.  As 
this  material  is  forced  into  the  head,  it  is  stirred  up,  if  necessary, 
by  jets  of  water  furnished  by  a  pump  on  the  dredge,  under  high 
pressure.  Thus  the  material  is  sufficiently  diluted  to  be  sucked 
by  the  pump  into  the  hopper.  The  purpose  of  the  special  head 
is  to  exclude  all  water  from  the  material,  except  an  amount 
sufficient  to  give  the  fluidity  desired  for  efficient  pumping. 
The  results  of  the  use  of  one  of  a  Fruhling  dredge  in  Mobile  Bay1 
showed  that  60  to  90  per  cent,  of  solid  material  in  mud  and  20 
to  50  per  cent,  in  sand  was  raised  as  compared  with  10  to  20  per 
cent,  with  the  ordinary  cutter-head  dredge  equipments. 

142.  Cost  of  Operation. — It  is  impossible  to  give  any  accurate 
statement  as  to  the  average  cost  of  excavation  with  a  hydraulic 
dredge.  Such  a  dredge  on  work  of  any  magnitude  is  usually 
made  especially  for  the  particular  conditions  at  hand  and  the 
cost  of  operation  may  vary  within  rather  wide  limits. 

Following  is  a  typical  labor  schedule  for  the  operation  during 
an  8-hr,  shift  of  a  hydraulic  dredge  equipped  with  a  20-in. 
centrifugal  pump: 

LABOR  EXPENSE  SCHEDULE 

Labor  Monthly  rate 

1  operator , $100.00 

1  engineer 100.00 

1  engineer 80 . 00 

3  firemen,  @  $70.00  each : . .  .  210.00 

1  spudman '. 60 . 00 

1  oiler 50.00 

4  deck  hands,  @  $50.  each ...  200 . 00 

1  Professional  Memoirs,  U.  S.  Corps  of  Engineers,  Capt.  C.  O.  Sherill. 


222     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

The  average  cost  of  operation  would  depend  upon  the  size 
and  capacity  of  the  dredge,  the  character  of  the  material,  effi- 
ciency of  operation,  kind  of  power  used,  etc.  Records  of  recent 
work  show  a  range  of  from  4  cents  to  15  cents  per  cubic  yard 
for  materials  varying  from  sand  to  indurated  gravel. 

143.  Field  of  Usefulness. — Hydraulic  dredges  have  been  in 
use  for  the  last  half  century,  but  their  greatest  development  has 
been  during  the  last  two  decades,  since  1895.     In  Europe  their 
use  has  been  largely  in  the  maintenance  of  channels  in  the  large 
rivers  and  in  the  construction  of  great  canals.     In  this  country 
they  have  been  used  principally  in  the  reclamation  of  low,  wet 
lands,  along  rivers,  lakes,  and  harbors,  the  construction  of  great 
artificial  waterways,  such  as  the  New  York  State  Barge  Canal  and 
the  Panama  Canal,  and  the  maintenance  of  channels  in  large 
inland  waterways,  such  as  the  Mississippi  River. 

The  earliest  types  of  hydraulic  dredge  were  provided  with  an 
agitator  and  water  jets  at  the  mouthpiece  end  of  the  suction  pipe, 
and  hence  they  could  handle  only  the  softer  soils,  such  as  silt, 
sand,  and  clay.  In  recent  years,  however,  the  cutter  head  has 
been  developed  in  different  forms,  and  very  hard,  dense  soils  can 
be  loosened  and  broken  up  sufficiently  to  be  discharged  through 
the  pump. 

The  hydraulic  dredge  is  not  an  economical  type  of  machine 
to  use  in  the  construction  of  levees  or  in  canal  excavation  where 
the  disposition  of  the  excavated  material  must  be  made  within  a 
confined  space.  The  material  as  it  emerges  from  the  discharge 
pipe  is  in  such  a  high  state  of  dilution  that  it  will  not  remain  in 
place  unless  confined  within  banks  or  bulkheads.  Some  method 
of  removing  the  surplus  water  in  the  discharge  pipe  may  be  used 
effectively;  one  such  method  being  the  installation  of  overflow 
strainers  placed  at  intervals  in  the  upper  sections  of  the  pipe. 

This  type  of  dredge  is  unique  among  excavators  in  its  ability 
to  discharge  the  excavated  material  in  any  direction  and  at  a 
considerable  distance  from  the  site  of  the  excavation.  This 
wide  range  of  disposal  is  of  especial  value  in  the  filling  in  of  waste 
lands  along  waterways. 

144.  Bibliography. — For  additional  information,  the  reader  is 
referred  to  the  following: 

Books 

1.  "Dredges  and  Dredging,"  by  CHARLES  PRELINI,  published  in  1911  by 
D.  Van  Nostrand,  New  York,  294  Pages,  6  in.  X  9  in.,  figures.  Cost,  $3.00. 


HYDRAULIC  DREDGES  223 

2.  "  The  Improvement  of  Rivers,"  by  THOMAS  and  WATT,  published  in  1903 
by  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  New  York.     9  in.  X  11H  in.,  772  pages,  83  figures. 
Cost,  $7.50. 

3.  " Regulation  of  Rivers,"  by  J.  L.  VAN  ORNUM,  published  in  1914  by 
McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  New  York.     6  in.  X  9  in.,  404  pages,  99 
figures.     Cost,  $4.00. 

Magazine  Articles 

1.  The  Bates  Dredge  for  Calcutta.     Engineering  Record,  June    9,  1900. 
Illustrated,  2000  words. 

2.  The    Bates  Electrically    Driven    Hydraulic    Dredger.     International 
Marine  Engineering,  May,  1909.     Illustrated,  900  words. 

3.  "Beta,"  Hydraulic  Suction  Dredge  on  the  Mississippi,  DAY  ALLEN 
WILLEY.     Scientific    American,    September    23,     1905.     Illustrated,  1000 
words. 

4.  The  Booth  Improved  Dredge  Pump.     Engineering  News,  March  26, 
1892. 

5.  Building   Levees  with   the    Hydraulic    Dredge.     Engineering     News, 
October  29,  1914.     Illustrated,  2000  words. 

6.  The  Burlington  Suction  Dredge.     Railway  Age  Gazette,  August  25, 

1911.  Illustrated,  1200  words. 

7.  Clay  Cutting  Hydraulic  Dredger  for  the  River  Nile.     Engineering, 
London,  January  6,  1911.     Illustrated,  700  words. 

8.  The  Colorado  River  Silt  Problem,  the  Dredge  "Imperial"  and  Irriga- 
tion in  Imperial  Valley,   California,   F.   C.   FINKLE.     Engineering  News, 
December  14,   1911.     Illustrated,  5000  words.  . 

9.  Combined  Bucket  and  Suction  Dredge.     Nautical  Gazette,  October  19, 
1905.     Illustrated,  1000  words. 

10.  The  Cost  of  Hydraulic  Dredging  on  the  Mississippi  River,  LIEUT.-COL. 
C.  B.  SEARS.    Engineering  Record,   March  21,  1908.     1200  words. 

11.  Cost  of  Dredging  29,708,465  cu.  yd.  of  Material  with  24  Sea-going 
Hopper  Dredges  During  1912.     Engineering  &  Contracting,  April  30,  1913. 
3500  words. 

12.  Cost  of  Dredging  21,016,512  cu.  yd.  of  Material  with  38  Hydraulic 
Pipe  Line   Dredges  During   1912.     Engineering  &   Contracting,   April- 23, 

1912.  500  words. 

13.  Cutting  Machinery  for  Suction  Dredgers.     Engineering,  London,  May 
23,  1902.     Illustrated,  1500  words. 

14.  The  Danish  Suction  Dredge  Graadyb,  AXEL  HOLN.     International 
Marine  Engineering,  May,  1912.     300  words. 

15.  Design  of  Hulls  for  Hydraulic  Cutter  Dredges,  E.  H.  PERCY.     Inter- 
national Marine  Engineering,  May,  1909.     1700  words. 

16.  Dredger  and  Soil  Distributor  at  the  Manchester  Canal.     Engineering 
News,  September  5,  1891. 

17.  Dredgers  on  the  New  York  State  Barge  Canal.     Engineering,  London, 
September  22,  1911. 

18.  Dredges,  A.  BARIL.     Revue  de  Mecanique,  March  31,  1907. 

19.  Dredges,    R.    MASSE.    Revue   de  Mecanique,   August,   1900.     3500 
words. 


224     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

20.  Dredges  and  Dredging  in  Mobile  Harbor,  J.  M.  PRATT.     Engineering- 
Contracting,  March  20,  1912.     4500  words. 

21.  Dredges  and   Dredging  on  the  Mississippi  River,  J.  A.  OCKERSON. 
Proceedings  of  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  June,  1898.      Illus- 
trated, 28,300  words. 

22.  Dredging.     International   Marine   Engineering,    May,  1913.      Illus- 
trated, 5000  words. 

23.  Dredging  by  Hydraulic  Method,  G.  W.  CATT.     Iowa  Engineer,  March, 

1905.  Illustrated,  3500  words. 

24.  Dredging  Equipment  for  Harbor  Maintenance.     Engineering  Record, 
March  8,  1913.     1800  words. 

25.  Dredging  in  New  South  Wales,  CECIL  WEST  DAILEY.     Engineering, 
London,  June,  1903.     1200  words. 

26.  Dredging  Machinery,  C.  H.  HOLST.     Le  Ingenieur,  November   3o, 
1901.     4000  .words. 

27.  Dredging    Machinery,    A.    W.    ROBINSON.     Engineering,    London, 
January  7  and  14,  1887. 

28.  Dredging  Machines,  JOHN  BOGART.     Engineering,  London,  August 
29,  1902. 

29.  Dredging    New   Haven   Harbor,   EDWIN  S.  LANE.     Yale  Scientific 
Monthly,  November,   1906.     Illustrated,  1500  words. 

30.  Dredging  Operations  and  Appliances,  J.  J.  WEBSTER.     Engineering 
News,  July  16  and  23,  1887. 

31.  Dredging   Operations   of   the    Dominion   of   Canada.     Engineering 
News,  November  7,  1912.     2500  words. 

32.  Dredging  Plant  for  India.     The  Engineer,  London,   December  28, 

1906.  Illustrated,  800  words. 

33.  Dredging   the    Hooghly.     The   Engineer,    London,    July    13,    1906. 
Illustrated,  800  words. 

34.  Dredging,  with  Special  Reference  to  Rotary  Cutters,  JAMES  HENRY 
APJOHN.     Engineering,  London,  June  19,  1903.     1000  words. 

35.  Economic  Analysis  of  Excavation  Methods  on  a  Typical  Section  of 
New  York  State  Barge  Canal  Work.     Engineering  &  Contracting,  May  21, 
1913.      Illustrated,  2000  words. 

36.  Electric  Maintenance  Dredge  on  Kaw  River.     Engineering  News, 
March  23,  1916.     Illustrated,  300  words. 

37.  Electric   Suction   Dredge  with  Special  Cutter  for  Gumbo.     Engi- 
neering News,  February  4,  1915.     Illustrated,  1000  words. 

38.  Electric  Dredge  Used  on  River  Improvement  in  Washington.     Engi- 
neering News,  March  9,  1916.     Illustrated,  1500  words. 

39.  An  Electrically  Operated  Hydraulic  Dredge.     Engineering  News,  May 
6,  1915.     500  words. 

40.  An  Electrically  Operated  Dredge.     Engineering  Record,  June  6,  1908. 
Illustrated,  2500  words. 

41.  An  Electrically  Operated  Suction  Dredger,  W.  T.  DONNELLY.     Inter- 
national Marine  Engineering,  May,  1910.     Illustrated,  1200  words. 

42.  English  and  American  Dredging  Practices,  A.  W.  ROBINSON.     Engi- 
neering News,  March  19,  1896.     1900  words. 


HYDRAULIC  DREDGES  225 

43.  An  Enormous  Suction  Dredge.     Engineering  Record,  December  14, 
1895.     1800  words. 

44.  Equipment   and   Performance   of   the    British   Columbia   Dredging 
Fleet.     Engineering  Record,   August  23,   1913.     Illustrated,  3000  words. 

45.  Excavating   at   3%   cents    Per    Cubic    Yard.     Engineering   Record, 
January  20,  1917.     150  words. 

46.  Experiences  in  the  Operation  and  Repair  of  the  Hydraulic  Dredges  on 
the  Mississippi  River,  F.  B.  MALTBY.     Journal  of  the  Association  of  Engi- 
neering Societies. 

47.  Feathering  Paddle  Wheels  for  the  U.  S.  Self-propelling  Hydraulic 
Dredges.     Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,  August  15,  1912.     Illustrated, 
1500  words. 

48.  The    Fruhling   System    of    Suction    Dredging,    JOHN    REID.     Engi- 
neering News,  March  5,  1908.     Illustrated,  3500  words. 

49.  Giant  Dredges  in  Toronto  Harbor.     Canadian  Engineer,  August  5, 
1915.     Illustrated,  1000  words. 

50.  Government  Dredges  for  New  York  Harbor.     Marine  Engineering, 
July,  1904.     Illustrated,  1500  words. 

51.  High   Powered   Dredges  and   Their   Relations   to   Sea  and   Inland 
Navigation,  LINTON  W.  BATES.     Nautical  Gazette,  March  9,  1899.     Illus- 
trated.    Serial. 

52.  Hopper  Suction  Dredger  "Libana"  for  the  Port  of  Liban.      Engi- 
neering, London,  January  11,  1889. 

53.  The  Hussey  Delivering  Dredge.     Engineering  News,  June  13,  1895. 

54.  The  Hydraulic  Dredge  "J.  ISRAEL  TARTE,"  A.  W.  ROBINSON.     Pro- 
ceedings of  Canadian  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  February  25,  1904.     Illus- 
trated, 6000  words. 

55.  Hydraulic  Dredge  for  Reclaiming  Land  for  Lincoln  Park,  Chicago. 
Engineering  News,  February  27,  1908.     Illustrated,  800  words. 

56.  Hydraulic  Dredge  for  Cuyahoga  River  Improvement.     International 
Marine  Engineering,  June,  1915.     Illustrated,  1500  words. 

57.  Hydraulic  Dredge  "Niagara"  and  Its  Work  in  the  Saginaw  River. 
Engineering  News,  August  27,  1914.     Illustrated,  1200  words. 

58.  Hydraulic  Dredge  to  Dig  to  Depth  of  100  Feet.     Engineering  Record, 
November  21,  1914.     Illustrated,  1000  words. 

59.  Hydraulic  Dredger  for  Burmah.     Engineering,  London,  January  12, 
1885. 

60.  Hydraulic  Dredges,  L.  W.  BATES.     Engineering  Record,  September 
24,  1898.     2800  words. 

61.  Hydraulic  Dredge  Used  on  the  New  York  State  Barge  Canal,  EMILE 
Low.     Engineering  News,  December  5,  1907.     Illustrated,  1200  words. 

62.  Hydraulic  Dredging  in  the  Pacific  Division  of  the  Panama  Canal. 
Engineering  Record,  April  2,  1910.     Illustrated,  3500  words. 

63.  Hydraulic  Dredging  in  Tidal  Channels,  W.  H.  WHEELER.     Engi- 
neering Record,  February  4,  1899.     5000  words. 

64.  Hydraulic  Dredging;  Its  Origin,  Growth  and  Present  Status,  W.  H. 
SMYTH.     Journal  of  the  Association  of  Engineering  Societies,  Vol.  XIX, 
1897.     10,000  words. 

15 


226     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

65.  Hydraulic  Dredging  in  New  York  Harbor.     Railroad  Gazette,  August 
28,  1891. 

66.  Hydraulic  Dredging  Machines,  C.  B.  HUNT.     Proceedings  Engineers 
Club  of  Philadelphia,  March,  1887. 

67.  Hydraulic  Dredging  on  the  Upper  Mississippi  River.     Engineering 
News,  July  24,  1913.     Illustrated,  3000  words. 

68.  Hydraulic  Dredging  on  New  York  Barge  Canal.     Engineering  News. 
April  10,  1913.     Illustrated,  8800  words. 

69.  Hydraulic    Dredging     Steamer     "Gen.    C.    B.    Comstock."     Engi- 
neering News,  April  23,  1896. 

70.  Hydraulic  Suction  Dredge  for  the  Navigation  Improvements  of  the 
Mississippi  River.     Engineering  News,  April  23,  1896. 

71.  The   Hydraulic   Transmission  of   Dredged   Material  at   San   Pedro 
Harbor,  California,  H.  HARGOOD.     Engineering  News,  September  2,  1909. 

72.  An  Improved  Hydraulic  Dredge.     Engineering  Record,   March  27, 
1897. 

73.  An  Improved  Suction  and  Force  Dredge,  H.  V.  HORN.     Zeitschrift 
des   Vereines  Deutscher  Ingenieure,  February  171 900.     Illustrated,  800  words. 

74.  The  Improvement  of  the  Mississippi  River  by  Dredging,  H.  ST.  L. 
COPPEE.     Engineering  Magazine,  June,  1898.     Illustrated,  4500  words. 

75.  The  Kretz  Jet  Dredge.     Oesterreichisehe  Monatsschrift  fur  den  Oeffent- 
lichen  Bandienst,  January,  1900.     Illustrated,  3000  words. 

76.  Large  Suction  Dredges  Depend  on  High  Velocity  for  Extraordinary 
Output.     Engineering  Record,  April  15,  1916.     Illustrated,  2500  words. 

77.  The  Latest  United  States  Dredges.     International  Marine  Engineering, 
June,  1915.     Illustrated,  1000  words. 

78.  Light  Draft  Hydraulic  Dredge.     Marine  Engineering,  April,  1902. 
Illustrated,  2000  words. 

79.  A  Light-draught  Sand-pump  Dredger.     The  Engineer,  London,  May 
20,  1910.     Illustrated,  1500  words. 

80.  The    Maintenance    of   Centrifugal    Dredging    Pumps.     Engineering 
Record,  April  20,  1901.     100  words. 

81.  Methods  of  Filling  and  Dredging  for  a  Jersey  City  Freight  Terminal. 
Engineering  News,  December  17,  1914.     Illustrated,  2000  words. 

82.  Minneapolis    Dredging    Pump    Operates    Electrically.     Engineering 
Record,  July  31,  1915.     Illustrated,  1000  words. 

83.  Modern  Dredging  Machinery,   R.  WELS.      Zeitschrift-  des    Vereines 
Deutscher  Ingenieure,  March  22  and  29,  1902.     7500  words. 

84.  Modern  Machinery  for  Excavating  and  Dredging,  A.  W.  ROBINSON. 
Engineering  Magazine,  March  and  April,  1903.     Illustrated,  7500  words. 

85.  A  Motor-Operated  Dredge  in  Coral  Rock.     Engineering  News,  June 
13,  1912.     Illustrated,  800  words. 

86.  A  New  Flexible  Connection  for  Suction  Pipes  of  Dredges.     Engi- 
neering Record,  October  19,  1907.     Illustrated,  1000  words. 

87.  New  Hydraulic   Dredges  for  the   Mississippi  River  Improvement. 
Engineering  News,  July  22,  1897. 

88.  A  New  Method  of  Applying  Cutting  Machinery  to  Suction  Dredges, 
GEORGE  HIGGINS.     Practical  Engineer,   November  23,   1910.     First  part, 
3500  words. 


HYDRAULIC  DREDGES  227 

89.  A  New  Pumping  Dredge.     Engineering  News,  January  30,  1886. 

90.  Notes  on  Hydraulic  Dredge  Design,  M.  G.  KINDLUND.     International  • 
Marine  Engineering,  May,  1912.      3000  words. 

91.  Operation  of  the  U.  S.  Suction  Dredge  "New  Orleans."     Engineering 
News,  May  28,  1914.     Illustrated,  1800  words. 

92.  Operation    of    Hydraulic    Pipe-line    Dredges   in    the    Mobile,    Ala. 
District.     Professional  Memoirs,   U.   S.   Army,  July-August,    1916.     Illus- 
trated; 6500  words. 

93.  Pipe-Line     Dredges.     Professional    Memoirs,     U.     S.     Army,     July- 
August,  1916.     Illustrated,  8000  words. 

94.  Plans  for  a  Fruhling  Suction-hopper  Dredge,  M.  POPP.     Schiffbau, 
May  8,  1912.     8  plates,  4000  words. 

95.  A  Powerful  Prussian  Hydraulic  Dredge,  H.  PRIME  KIEFFER.     Iron 
Age,  September  24,  1908.     Illustrated,  2000  words. 

96.  The  Pumping  Dredge  Used  in  Reclaiming  Land,  JOHN  GRAHAM,  JR. 
Engineering  Record,  February  13,  1892. 

97.  Recent  Dredging  Operations  at  Oakland  Harbor,  California,  L.  J. 
LE  CONTE.     Transactions  of  the  A  merican  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,Vo\.  XIII, 
1884. 

98.  Recent  Improvements  in   Dredging  Machinery,   A.   W.   ROBINSON. 
Engineering  News,  December  4,  1886. 

99.  Reclaiming    the    Calumet    and    Hecla    Tailings    with    a    Hydraulic 
Dredge.     Excavating  Engineer,   December,  1914.     Illustrated,  1500  words. 

100.  Reconstruction  of  U.   S.    Dredge   Barnard.     International  Marine 
Engineering,  June,  1915.     Illustrated,  700  words. 

101.  River  and  Harbor  Dredging.     Indian  -and  Eastern  Engineer,  June, 
1898.     Illustrated,  2400  words. 

102.  Russian    Dredgers,   A.   BORMANN.     Nautical   Gazette,  January   11, 
1906. 

103.  Sand-pump  Dredgers,  A.  GEO.  SYSTER.     Engineering,  London,  June 
16,  1890.     1400  words. 

104.  The  Sea-going  Hydraulic  Dredge  "Bengaurd."     Engineering  Record, 
October  6,  1900.     1000  words. 

105.  Sea-going  Hydraulic  Dredges  for  the  East  Channel  Improvement, 
New  York  Harbor.   Marine  Engineering,  June,  1901.   Illustrated,  1400  words. 

106.  Sea-going  Suction  Dredges,  THOMAS  M.  CORNBROOKS.     Society  of 
Naval  Architects  and  Marine  Engineers,  November,  1908.     Plates,  500  words. 

107.  Self-propelling  Hydraulic  Dredge  for  the  Mississippi  River.     Engi- 
neering News,  May  31,  1900.     Illustrated,  2800  words. 

108.  Special  Cutter  Head  on  Dredge  Working  in  Hard  Material.     Engi- 
neering News,  November  18,  1915.     Illustrated,  400  words. 

109.  Suction  Dredge  and  Collector.     Schweizerische  Bauzetung,  September 
16,  1899.     Illustrated,  1200  words. 

110.  Suction   Pump   Dredger   "Octopus"  for  the   Natal   Government. 
Engineering,  London,  August  20,  1897.    Illustrated,  700  words. 

111.  Two  More  Types  of  Dredgers.     Engineering,  London,  September 
15,  1916.     Illustrated,  1500  words. 

112.  Two  New  Dredgers.     The  Engineer,  London,  December  30,  1910. 
Illustrated,  500    words. 


228    EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

113.  The  10,000-ton  Suction  Dredger  "Leviathan "for  use  on  the  Mersey. 
Scientific  American,  November  6,  1909.     Illustrated,  1700  words. 

114.  Twenty-inch  Hydraulic  Dredge  "King  Edward,"  A.  W.  ROBINSON. 
Canadian  Engineer,  March,  1903.     Illustrated,  2800  words. 

115.  Two  Sea-going  Suction  Dredges.     Marine  Review,  August  29, 1901. 
Illustrated,  900  words. 

116.  The  United  States  Sea-going  Dredge,  COL.  P.  S.  MICHIE.     Profes- 
sional Memoirs,  U.  S.  Army,  July-August,  1916.     Illustrated,  27  pages. 

117.  U.  S.  Suction  Dredge  New  Orleans.     International  Marine  Engineer- 
ing, May,  1911.     Illustrated,  1200  words. 

118.  The   Van  Schmidt  Dredge,  GEORGE  HIGGINS.     Proceedings  of  the 
Institute  of  Civil  Engineers,  Vol.  CIV,  1890. 


CHAPTER  XV 
SUBAQUEOUS  ROCK  DRILLS 

145.  Preliminary. — The  earliest  known  method  of  subaqueous 
rock  excavation  was  by  means  of  explosives  which  were  lowered 
to  the  surface  of  the  rock  to  be  broken  up.     This  method  was 
uncertain  and  unsatisfactory  especially  in  the  case  of  a  ledge. 
Large  boulders  and  projecting  rock  can  be  easily  fractured  in 
this  way.     Later  a  drop  bar  was  used  to  drill  holes  into  which 
charges  were  introduced  in  the  regular  way.     This  method  has 
proved  to  be  slow  and  expensive. 

In  Europe,  subaqueous  rock  breaking  has  largely  been  done 
by  the  use  of  a  heavy  bar,  which  shatters  the  rock  by  the  im- 
pact of  the  falling  point.  In  the  United  States,  the  early  and 
crude  methods  of  drilling  and  blasting  have  been  developed, 
and  have  resulted  in  the  universal  use  of  some  form  of  drill  boat. 

146.  Classification. — The  two  general  methods  of  rock  break- 
ing are  as  follows:     (1)  By  the  use  of  the  Lobnitz  Rock  Cutter 
and  (2)  By  some  form  of  drill  boat. 

The  four  forms  of  drill  boat  in  general  use  are: 

(a)  A  floating  barge,  equipped  with  movable  towers  on  which 

drills  are  mounted. 

(6)  A  floating  barge,  equipped  with  drilling  frames  which  are 

arranged  to  lower  the  drills  to  the  rock  surface. 

(c)  An  adjustable  platform  which  supports  the  drills  and  can 
be  raised  and  lowered. 

(d)  A  floating  platform  or  barge,  equipped  with  tripod  drills. 
The  type  of  rock  breaker  used  depends  on  local  conditions, 

and  special  methods  and  devices  must  often  be  employed  to  solve 
unusual  problems.  Some  of  the  conditions  which  affect  suba- 
queous rock  excavation  and  which  must  be  investigated  in  selecting 
an  equipment  are;  the  depths  of  water  over  the  various  parts  of 
the  area,  the  shape  and  depth  of  excavation,  the  character  of  the 
rock  to  be  broken  up,  the  extent  and  nature  of  the  overlying 
material,  the  nature  of  floods,  tides,  storms  and  climatic  conditions 
to  be  encountered,  etc. 

229 


230     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 
I.  LOBNITZ  ROCK  CUTTER 

147.  Construction. — The  Lobnitz  rock  cutter  consists  of  a 
heavy  chisel  of  iron  or  steel  weighing  from  4  to  15  tons,  and  pro- 
vided with  a  hardened  steel  cutting  point.  The  cutter  is  usually 
mounted  on  a  hull  or  barge  which  is  rigidly  braced  by  cross- 
frames.  The  details  of  a  rock  cutter  are  shown  in  Figs.  116 
and  117. 


FIG.  116. — Side  elevation  and  cross-section  of  Lobnitz  rock  cutter. 


FIG.   117. — Plan  of  Lobnitz  rock  cutter. 

In  Europe,  where  this  form  of  rock  breaker  is  in  general  use, 
the  ladder  dredges  are  often  provided  with  several  picks  or 
cutters,  located  in  a  well  alongside  of  the  ladder.  These  picks 
are  placed  about  2  feet  apart  and  are  operated  singly  or  coor- 
dinately.  The  picks  are  sometimes  made  of  heavy  timbers 
which  are  provided  with  hardened  steel  points.  The  buckets 


SUBAQUEOUS  ROCK  DRILLS 


231 


of  a  ladder  dredge  so  equipped  are  made  of  very  heavy  material 
and  equipped  with  teeth  on  the  cutting  edges. 

148.  Method  of  Operation. — The  cutter  is  raised  by  a  winch 
or  hoisting  engine  to  a  height  of  from  5  to  10  ft.  and  dropped 
upon  the  surface  of  the  rock.  The  impact  of  the  falling  point 
serves  to  fracture  rock  to  a  depth  of  from  2  to  3  feet.  The  frag- 
ments of  rock  are  removed  by  a  dipper  or  ladder  dredge.  A 
ladder  dredge  provided  with  10  cutters  has  excavated  43  tons 
of  hard  rock  per  hour. 


FIG.  118.— Drill    boat   on 


the    Mississippi    River. 
Dredge  &  Dock  Co.) 

II.  DRILL    BOATS 


(Courtesy    of  Great   Lakes 


149.  Preliminary. — The  Lobnitz  rock  cutter  has  never  been 
adopted  for  subaqueous  rock  excavation  in  this  country  on 
account  of  its  slow  speed  and  cumbersome  method  of  operation. 
Some  form  of  drill  boat  has  been  in  use  in  the  waters  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada  during  the  past  40  years.  The  pro- 
totype of  the  modern  drill  boat  was  a  barge  devised  in  1872  for 
the  excavating  of  the  harbor  at  Port  Colborne  on  Lake  Erie. 
This  barge  was  equipped  with  two  steam  drills  arranged  for  both 
longitudinal  and  horizontal  feed  and  manipulated  by  spuds  at 
the  corners.  The  drill  boats  of  the  present  time  use  these  same 


232     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


principal  features,  which  have  been  developed  and  improved  to  a 
considerable  extent. 

150.  Construction. — The  drill  boat  consists  of  a  barge  equipped 
with  a  spud  at  each  corner  and  carrying  one  or  more  power 
drills.     The  details  of  construction  depend  on  the  uses  to  which 
the  boat  is  to  be  put,  and  especially  the 
character  of  the  stream;  tidal  or  non-tidal. 
Types  (a),   (6)  and  (d)  as  stated  in  Art. 
146  are   used   in   non-tidal  waters,  while 
type  (c)  is  employed  in  tidal  waters. 

The  boat  or  barge  is  built  of  either  wood 
or  steel  and  usually  has  a  width  of  from 
30  to  40  ft.,  a  length  of  from  70  to  100  ft. 
and  a  depth  of  from  4  to  8  feet. 

The  drilling  equipment  consists  of  steam- 
operated  drills  which  are  mounted  on 
movable  towers.  The  latter  are  mounted 
on  rails  laid  along  one  side  of  the  barge. 
The  towers  are  propelled  along  the  track 
by  chains  operated  by  a  separate  wheel  on 
the  hoisting  engine  or  by  a  cog  wheel  on 
the  drill  frame  engaging  a  rack  on  the  deck. 
A  general  view  of  a  drill  boat  equipped 
with  five  drill  towers  is  shown  in  Fig.  118. 
Means  is  provided  for  clamping  the  towers 
in  any  position  on  the  track.  Each  tower 
is  provided  with  vertical  guides  which 
carry  the  drill  frame,  the  upper  section  of 
which  is  a  heavy  cast  iron  to  which  the 
drill  is  bolted.  The  drills  vary  in  diameter 
from  1^2  to  2%  in.  and  in  length  up  to  50 
feet.  Figure  119  gives  a  detail  view  of  a 
submarine  rock  drill  and  shows  the  cylinder 
and  the  spiral  spring  which  is  used  as  a 
shock  absorber. 

In  the  steam-operated  type  of  drills,  the  drill  frame  is  moved 
by  a  rope  or  cable  which  passes  over  a  sheave  at  the  top  of  the 
tower  and  connects  the  saddle  with  a  drum  of  the  hoisting  engine. 
The  power  for  the  operation  of  the  drills  is  supplied  by  specially 
constructed  engines  equipped  with  a  throttle  reverse.  The  drill 
feed  regulation  is  controlled  by  a  foot  brake  on  the  hoisting  en- 


FIG.  119. — Detail  view 
of  a  submarine  rock 
drill.  (Courtesy  of 
I nger soil-Rand  Co.) 


SUBAQUEOUS  ROCK  DRILLS 


233 


gine.  The  latter  has  gradually  supplanted  the  hydraulic  lift 
cylinder  which  was  difficult  to  operate  in  freezing  weather. 
Figures  120  and  121  show  the  rear  and  side  views  of  a  drill 
frame  and  hoisting  engine. 


FIG.  120. — Rear  view  of  drill  frame  and  engine.     (Courtesy  of  Ingersoll-Rand  Co.) 

Compressed  air  has  been  used  to  some  extent  for  the  operation 
of  subaqueous  drills  but  has  not  proved  to  be  economical  and 
satisfactory.  Hence,  steam  is  the  kind  of  power  generally  used. 


234     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

The  pressure  employed  varies  from  90  to  100  pounds.  Provision 
must  be  made  in  determining  boiler  capacity  for  the  supply 
of  pumps,  hoists,  auxiliary  engines,  etc.  As  drill  boats  operate 


FIG.  121. — Side  view  of  drill  frame  and  engine.     (Courtesy  of  Ingersoll-Rand  Co.) 

nearly  continuously  considerable  difficulty  will  be  experienced 
in  the  cleaning  of  boilers  due  to  soot  and  scale.  Hence  it  is  desir- 
able to  provide  suitable  reserve  boiler  capacity.  A  feed  water 
heater  or  some  other  type  of  water  heater  and  purifier  should  be 


f 

SUBAQUEOUS  ROCK  DRILLS  235 

utilized  to  soften  and  purify  the  water  before  it  is  fed  to  the  boiler. 
In  several  cases,  the  drills  have  been  exhausted  to  condensers 
with  a  considerable  reduction  in  water  saving  and  fuel  consump- 
tion. Also  the  nuisance  of  exhaust  steam  was  eliminated  and 
pure  boiler  water  secured. 

In  the  early  days  of  subaqueous  rock  drilling  considerable 
difficulty  was  experienced  in  .keeping  the  holes  free  from  silt 
and  debris  washed  in  from  the  overburden  or  from  upstream 
holes.  To  overcome  this  trouble  the  submarine  drilling  and 
charging  tube  was  devised.  The  ordinary  form  of  this  tube  is 
a  telescoping  pipe  the  lower  section  of  which  rests  upon  the  solid 
rock  which  is  being  drilled,  while  the  upper  section  is  of  large 
diameter  and  is  made  in  two  telescoping  sections.  The  lower 
section  of  the  pipe  need  only  be  slightly  larger  than  the  drill 
hole  and  is  made  long  enough  to  extend  through  the  overburden. 
The  upper  end  of  the  tube  is  attached  to  a  platform  or  a  drill 
frame  so  that  the  drill  may  pass  through  it  freely.  Where  the 
overburden  is  shallow  and  the  water  not  too  deep,  a  single  size 
of  pipe  with  a  funnel  top  has  been  used  satisfactorily.  A  jet 
pipe  is  necessary  to  force  a  stream  of  water  at  a  pressure  of  about 
100  Ib.  against  the  bottom  of  the  hole  to  wash  out  the  cuttings. 

151.  Method  of  Operation. — The  drill  boat  is  towed  to  its  loca- 
tion and  anchored  by  means  of  cables,  anchors  or  its  own  spuds, 
depending  on  local  conditions.  The  exact  location  may  be  se- 
cured by  means  of  winches.  The  heavy  spuds,  located  at  the 
corners  of  the  barge  are  lowered  into  position  and  the  boat  lifted 
until  enough  of  its  weight  is  carried  in  this  manner  to  hold  it  in 
position.  Usually  a  lift  of  about  6  in.  is  sufficient  to  hold  the 
boat  steady.  Recently  (1914),  in  the  excavation  of  the  Welland 
Ship  Canal,  a  drill  boat  was  equipped  with  spuds  by  means  of 
which  the  barge  could  be  raised  several  feet  above  the  water 
level  to  secure  a  more  rigid  platform  or  on  the  approach  of  storms. 

When  the  range  in  tide  is  over  a  foot  it  is  difficult  to  make 
allowance  variation  in  the  operation  of  the  spuds.  This  has 
been  done  in  some  cases  by  so  adjusting  the  spud  engines  by 
additional  weights  on  the  spuds  that  when  the  tide  rose 
the  barge  was  lifted  and  when  it  fell  the  barge  was  lowered 
automatically.  However,  when  the  range  of  tide  is  large,  this 
method  is  unsatisfactory  and  often  results  in  the  binding  of  the 
drills  in  their  holes  and  subsequent  damage  to  the  drills  or  the 
frames. 


236    EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

(b)  In  localities  where  the  tidal  range  is  more  than  3  ft. 
and  the  work  is  exposed  to  wave  action,  it  has  been  found 
necessary  to  use  specially  mounted  drills.  The  latter  are  fas- 
tened on  long  frames  or  shells  which  are  bolted  to  heavy  wooden 
or  steel  spuds.  The  barge  on  which  the  drills  are  mounted, 
is  equipped  with  derricks  for  the  placing  of  the  spuds  and  attached 
drill  frames  or  the  latter  may  be  housed  in  movable  guides  over- 
hanging the  sides  of  the  boat.  In  the  latter  case,  the  guides  are 


FIG.  122. — Drill  boat  equipped  with  two   drill  frames. 

Rand  Co.) 


(Courtesy  of  Inyersoll- 


suspended  from  a-  track  located  several  feet  above  the  deck  of 
the  boat  and  are  moved  by  means  of  trolleys  operated  by  a  hoist- 
ing engine.  The  drill  frames  are  so  mounted  on  the  front  face 
of  the  spuds  that  they  can  be  raised  and  lowered  by  cables  con- 
nected to  the  hoisting  engine.  Figure  122  shows  a  drill  boat 
equipped  with  two  submarine  frames.  The  vertical  motion  of 
the  drills  is  obtained  by  a  feed  screw  which  is  actuated  by  a  small, 
separate  engine  mounted  on  top  of  the  frames.  See  Fig.  123. 
The  relation  of  the  boat  to  tidal  changes  or  wave  acton  is  made 
automatic  by  the  operation  of  the  spud  engines.  The  latter 
are  kept  under  a  constant  steam  pressure  and  an  increase  in 
load  on  the  spuds  because  of  a  falling  tide  will  result  in  their  slow- 


SUBAQUEOUS  ROCK  DRILLS 


237 


ing  up  and  any  decrease  in  the  load  due  to  a  rising  tide  will  cause 
the  engines  to  speed  up  against  the  steam  pressure. 

(c)  A  simple  device  for  subaqueous  drilling  in  shallow  water, 
where  swift  currents,  high  tides  and  rough  water  or  a  combination 
of  these  conditions  occur,  is  the  use 

of  an  adjustable  platform.  The 
method  of  flotation  is  the  use  of  barrels 
or  pontoons  and  four  spuds  a.t  the 
corners  are  used  to  support  the  plat- 
form as  in  the  case  of  drill  boats. 
The  excavating  or  drilling  equipment 
consists  of  two  or  more  tripod  drills 
which  are  mounted  on  wooden  frames. 
The  latter  are  arranged  so  that  they 
can  be  moved  over  longitudinal  slots 
in  the  platform.  The  slots  are  lo- 
cated in  accordance  with  the  required 
location  of  the  drill  holes  and  run 
continuously  nearly  the  full  length 
of  the  platform.  The  platform  and 
spuds  are  operated  by  a  hand  winch. 
The  power  equipment  is  usually 
placed  on  a  scow  which  is  moored 
alongside  the  platform  and  consists  of 
a  boiler,  accessories,  forge,  etc. 

(d)  In  shallow    waters  where  the 
tidal  range  is  small,  as  inland  waters, 
drilling  is   often   done   from   simple 
floating  pontoons.      The  latter  may 
be  in  the  form  of  rafts  which  support 
steam    tripod   drills.     The    supports 
for  the  drills   are   usually   A-frames 
made  up  of  4  X  12  in.  timbers  framed 
together   to    furnish  a  base  for   the 
lower  ends  of  the   tripod  legs.     The 
size  of  the  float  and  the  number  of 

drills  used  depends  on  local  conditions.  In  the  construction 
of  a  channel  through  the  Tuscumbia  Bar  in  the  Tennessee 
River,  three  floats,  25  X  77  ft.  were  used.  Eight  steam- 
operated  drills  were  used  on  each  float.  Drilling  was  carried 
on  through  a  3-in.  pipe,  and  the  holes  were  spaced  4  X  6  ft. 


FIG.  123.— Detail  of  drill 
frame,  drill  and  engine. 
(Courtesy  of  Ingersoll-Rand 
Co.) 


238     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

and  carried  down  to  a  depth  of  9  ft.  below  low  water.     A  plan 
and  cross-sectional  view  of  a  drill  platform  is  given  in  Fig.  124. 


FIG.  124. — Platform    for    subaqueous    drilling.     (Courtesy    of    I nger soil-Rand 

Co.) 

152.  Cost  of  Operation. — The  output  and  cost  of  operation  of 
a  drill  boat  depends  upon  the  number  and  size  of  drills,  the  char- 
acter of  the  rock,  the  depth  of  excavation,  etc.  It  is  impossible 
to  state  any  general  rules  which  may  be  used  in  this  class  of  work. 


SUBAQUEOUS  ROCK  DRILLS  239 

The  following  statement  is  given  as  a  typical  case  of  the  use  of 
a  drill  boat  in  channel  excavation. 

The  work  consisted  in  the  excavation  of  a  ship  channel,  200 
ft.  wide  and  17  ft.  deep,  in  a  large  river.  The  material  was 
a  very  hard  limestone  rock  occurring  in  strata  from  20  in.  to 
30  in.  thick.  The  work  was  carried  on  in  a  stream  having  a 
current  of  from  8  miles  to  12  miles  an  hour,  in  an  area  of  turbu- 
lent water. 

The  drill  boat  was  equipped  with  four  5-in.  drills,  which  op- 
erated through  four  slots,  each  20  ft.  long  and  18  in.  wide, 
and  located  in  the  forward  part  of  the  barge.  The  drill  frames 
carried  steel  drill  spuds  with  pipe  guides  for  the  drill  bars,  and 
were  arranged  to  move  along  tracks  the  length  of  the  wells. 
Thus  each  drill  made  several  holes  at  each  set-up  of  the  barge. 
Holes  were  drilled  and  blasted  in  groups  of  four.  The  rock 
was  drilled  below  grade  to  a  depth  equal  to  half  the  hole  spacing, 
which  was  about  6  feet.  The  dynamite  used  was  proportioned 
on  a  basis  of  about  1  Ib.  to  a  cubic  yard  of  rock. 

The  barge  was  supported  on  four  20  X  20-in.  power-con- 
trolled spuds.  Gear  drums  operated  five  Ij^-in.  breasting  chains, 
one  leading  upstream,  and  two  over  each  side.  Each  chain 
was  attached  to  an  anchor  weighing  about  1  ton. 

The  monthly  cost  of  operation  is  as  follows: 


OPERATING  COST  OF  DRILL  BOAT 

Labor: 

1  captain $100.00 

4  drillers  @  $75.00  each 300.00 

4  helpers  @  $30.00  each 120.00 

fireman 30.00 

machinist 65 . 00 

blacksmith 70 . 00 

helper 30.00 

blaster 60.00 

helper 35.00 

Icook..  30.00 


Total  labor  expense,  per  month $840 . 00 

Board  and  Lodging: 

16  men,  @  $12.00  each,  per  month $192.00 


240     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

Fuel  and  Supplies: 

60  tons  coal  @  $4 .00 $240.00 

Oil  and  wastej 40. 00 

Blacksmith's  coal 15 . 00 

Steel,  iron,  and  supplies 52 . 00 


$347.00 


Grand  total,  per  month $1379 . 00 

Cost  of  drilling,  per  drill  hour 1 . 105 

Cost  of  drilling,  per  foot  drilled 0 . 049 

Average  depth  of  drilling,  per  hour  (ft) 2^ 

Depth  of  drilling  (ft.) 0  to  11 


153.  Resume. — The  Lobnitz  rock  cutter  works  most  efficiently 
in  shallow  layers  of  stratified  rock,  which  is  easily  broken  up. 
This  form  of  rock  excavator  has  not  been  adopted  in  this  country 
because  it  is  rather  slow  and  cumbersome  in  operation  and  does 
not  meet  the  needs  of  rapid  channel  construction  in  the  rivers 
and  harbors. 

The  drill  boat  works  most  efficiently  in  hard  rock  of  depths 
of  3  ft.  and  over.  The  type  of  boat  to  be  used  depends  on  local 
conditions  and  especially  as  to  the  range  of  tide.  For  inland 
waters  of  shallow  depth  and  little  trouble  from  storms,  the  float- 
ing pontoon  is  the  cheapest  and  simplest  form  of  boat.  For 
greater  depths  of  water  and  where  the  range  of  tide  is  not  over 
2  ft.,  the  floating  drill  barge  can  be  efficiently  used.  Where 
waves,  strong  currents,  flood  conditions  and  ice  jams  may  occur 
in  inland  waterSj  the  barge  equipped  with  submarine  drilling 
frames  or  an  adjustable  platform  should  be  used. 

154.  Bibliography. — For    further    information,    consult    the 
following: 


Books 

1.  "Earth  and  Rock  Excavation,"  by  CHARLES  PRELINI,  published  in 
1905  by  D.  Van  Nostrand,  New  York.     421  pages,  167  figures,  6  in.  X  9  in. 
Cost,  $3.00. 

2.  "  Handbook  of  Rock  Excavation,"  by  H.  P.  GILLETTE,  published  by 
McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,   New  York.     5  in.  X  7%  in.,  825  pages, 
figures.     Cost,  $5.00. 

3.  "Rock  Drilling,"  by  DANA  and  SAUNDERS,  published  by  John  Wiley 
&  Sons,  New  York.     6  in.  X  9  in.,  127  figures,  310  pages.     Cost,  $4.00. 


SUBAQUEOUS  ROCK  DRILLS  241 

Magazine  Articles 

1.  Current  Practice  in  Blasting  and  Dredging,  W.  L.  SAUNDERS.    En- 
gineering-Contracting, April  24,  1912.     6500  words. 

2.  A  Drill  Boat  Which  L'fts  Itself  Clear  of  the  Water.     Engineering 
News,  December  31,  1914.     Illustrated,  300  words. 

3.  The  Lobintz  Rock  Dredge.     Engineering  News,  January  16,  1889. 

4.  Methods  and  Costs  of  Drilling  and  Blasting  Subaqueous  Flint  Rock. 
Engineering  &  Contracting,  October  8,  1913.     Illustrated,  2500  words. 

5.  The  Method   of   Operating  a  Lobintz  Cutter  in  Canal  and  Harbor 
Works,  LINDON  BATES,  JR.     Engineering-Contracting,  December  18,  1907. 
2500  words. 

6.  Methods  and  Costs  of  Operating  Lobintz  Rock  Breakers  and  Drill 
Boats  on  the  Panama  Canal,  S.  B.  WILLIAMSON.     Engineering-Contracting, 
May  29,  1912.     1500  words. 

7.  Methods  and  Costs  of  Rock  Excavation  in  the  Harbors  of  Aviales, 
San  Esteban  de  Praria  and  Port  de  Bilbao,  Spain.     Engineering-Contracting, 
June   19,   1912.     4000  words. 

8.  Methods  of  Subaqueous  Rock  Excavation,   Buffalo  Harbor,   N.   Y. 
Engineering  News,  July  6,  1905.     Illustrated,  1000  words. 

9.  Methods  of  Submarine  Rock  Drilling  with  Drill  Boats,  with  Records 
of    Performance,    Detroit    River    Improvement.     Engineering-Contracting, 
October  9,  1912. 

10.  The  Operation  of  Rock  Breakers  at  Black  Rock  Harbor.     Engineering 
Record,  January  7,  1911. 

11.  Removal  of  Subaqueous  Rock  at  Blythe,   GEORGE   DUNCAN  Mc- 
GLASHAN.     Transactions  of  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  1907.     Illus- 
trated, 4000  words. 

12.  A  Review  of  Methods  Employed  for  Removing  Subaqueous  Rock, 
MICHAEL  KOCH.     Engineering-Contracting,  May  29,  1912.     3000  words. 

13.  Rock  Drilling  in  the  Tennessee  River.     Engineering  Record,  Novem- 
ber 1,  1913.     2000  words. 

14.  Rock    Excavation    by    Mechanical    Power    Instead    of    Explosion. 
Engineering  News,  June  25,  1908.     2200  words. 

15.  Rock  Drilling  in  the  Tennessee  River.     Engineering  Record,  November 
1,  1913.     2000  words. 

16.  Scow  for  Submarine-Rock  Drilling.     Engineering  Record,  November 
29,  1913.     Illustrated,  1600  words. 

17.  Subaqueous  Excavation  at  the  Halifax  Ocean  Terminals.     Engineer- 
ing News,  February  3,  1915.     Illustrated,  1200  words. 

18.  Subaqueous   Rock   Excavated  from   Platform.     Engineering  News, 
July  27,  1916.     Illustrated,  400  words. 

19.  Subaqueous   Rock  Excavation.     Engineering  News,   November   18, 
1915,  November  25,  1915  and  December  2,  1915.     Illustrated,  1000  words. 

20.  A    Subaqueous    Rock-cutter    Dredger,    BENJAMIN    TAYLOR.     Inter- 
national Marine  Engineering,  April,  1908.     Illustrated,  1500  words. 

21.  Subaqueous  Rock  Removal,  B.  CUNNINGHAM.     Gassier' s  Magazine, 
March,  1908.     Illustrated,  2500  words. 

22.  A  Submarine  Rock  Excavator,  CHARLES  GRAHAM  HEPBURN.    Pro- 
ceedings of  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  1900.     Illustrated,  1000  words. 

16 


CHAPTER  XVI 
CAR  AND  WAGON  LOADERS 

155.  Preliminary. — One  of  the  more  recent  developments  in 
excavating  machinery  is  the  excavator  and  loader.  There  has 
been  a  great  demand,  in  recent  years,  for  a  machine  which  would 
eliminate  hand  labor  in  loading  and  unloading  cars  and  wagons. 


FIG.   125. — Excavator  and  loader.     (Courtesy  of  T.  L.  Smith  Co.) 

The  excavation  of  foundations,  basements  and  pits  as  well  as  the 
universal  use  of  sand,  gravel  and  broken  stone  in  construction 
work  has  created  a  demand  for  a  machine  which  will  not  only 
serve  as  a  loader,  but  as  an  excavator  as  well.  Two  types  of 

242 


CAR  AND   WAGON  LOADERS  243 

excavators  and  loaders  have  come  into  general  use  at  the  present 
time;  the  scraper -bucket  type  and  the  endless-chain  type. 

156.  General  Description. — The  scraper  bucket  or  drag-line 
excavator  and  loader  consists  of  triangular  frame  mounted 
on  a  truck  which  carries  an  engine  for  the  operation  of  a  scraper 
bucket  and  hopper.  An  inspection  of  Fig.  125  will  clearly  show 
the  various  working  parts  of  the  machine.  The  projecting  ends 
of  the  upright  triangular  frame  carry  the  drum  for  the  hauling 
cable,  while  the  drum  for  the  back-haul  cable  is  located  on  the 
side  of  the  machine.  The  dumping  hopper  is  attached  to  the 


FIG.   126. — Endless  chain  type  of  loader.     (Courtesy  of  Geo.  Hoiss  Mfg.  Co.) 

rear  ends  of  a  pivoted  frame,  and  in  its  lowered  position  rests 
upon  the  lower  ends  of  the  side  frame,  with  its  edge  in  contact 
with  a  steel  apron.  The  motive  power  is  furnished  by  a  10-h.p. 
gasoline  engine,  but  the  machine  is  moved  from  place  to  place 
by  a  team  or  traction  engine.  The  machine  weighs  3000  Ib.  and 
costs  $1500  f.o.b.  factory. 

The  endless-chain  type  of  excavator  and  loader  consists  of  a 
four-wheel  truck  which  supports  an  endless-chain  excavator. 
See  Fig.  126.  Over  the  rear  axle  of  the  steel  frame  truck  is  located 
a  triangular  frame  of  steel  members  to  which  is  pivoted  the 
chain  frame.  This  method  of  support  allows  the  excavation  of 
material  of  from  1  to  12  in.  above  the  ground  surface.  The 
chains  are  of  the  roller-pin  type  and  carry  20  carbon-steel 


244     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


i-Or-  Iron   Blieta 


FIG.  127. — Self-propelling  wagon  loader. 


FIG.  128. — Scraper  bucket  excavator  and  loader  excavating  gravel  pit. 


CAR  AND   WAGON  LOADERS  245 

buckets,  each  of  which  has  a  capacity  of  about  %  cubic  foot.  The 
motive  power  may  be  an  electric  motor  or  an  internal  combustion 
engine  of  7^  horse  power.  The  machine  is  equipped  with  a 
patent  crowding  device  which  pushes  the  elevator  30  in.  into  the 
material  being  excavated.  The  excavator  weighs  5000  Ib.  and 
costs  from  $850  to  $1100,  depending  on  the  kind  of  power  used. 

Another  make  of  the  endless-chain  type  of  wagon  loader  is 
shown  in  Fig.  127.  The  loader  shown  is  provided  with  a  shaking 
chute  and  a  hopper  for  the  sifting  and  screening  of  coal,  sand 
or  gravel  before  dumping  into  cars  or  wagons.  The  special  fea- 
ture of  this  machine  is  a  self-propelling  device  by  means  of  which 
the  loader  may  be  moved  forward  or  backward  while  the  elevator 
is  in  operation.  The  loader  may  be  adjusted  by  a  worm-gear 
mechanism  which  operates  a  hinged  frame.  The  wheels  are  all 
mounted  on  knuckles  similar  to  the  standard  automobile  prac- 
tice. The  entire  operation  of  the  machine  is  controlled  by 
one  man. 

157.  Method  of  Operation. — The  initial  step  in  the  operation 
of  the  scraper-bucket  loader  is  the  lowering  of  the  bucket  or 
scoop  to  the  place  of  excavation,  where  a  man  guides  the  bucket 
by  the  two  handles,  similar  to  the  filling  of  a  slip  scraper.  One 
of  these  machines  being  used  for  the  excavation  of  a  gravel  pit 
is  shown  in  Fig.  128.  The  loaded  bucket  is  hauled  by  the  hoisting 
line  to  the  top  of  the  slope,  where  the  apron  guides  it  into  the 
hopper.  The  bucket  releases  a  latch  on  the  hopper  which,  v.  ith 
the  continued  pull  on  the  hoisting  line,  is  raised  through  a  vertical 
arc  until  the  contents  are  automatically  discharged  over  an  apron 
into  a  car  or  wagon.  The  engine  is  then  reversed  and  the  back- 
haul  cable  lowers  the  hopper  to  the  loading  position  and  pulls 
the  scraper  back  to  place  of  excavation.  A  chain  can  be  attached 
to  the  outer  or  lower  end  of  the  cable  and  anchored  to  stakes  or 
"  deadmen. "  A  pulley  is  attached  to  the  chain  near  one  end  and 
a  second  pulley  is  placed  at  any  other  point  along  the  chain. 
The  back-haul  cable  is  run  through  the  fixed  pulley  and  then 
through  the  movable  pulley  and  then  attached  to  the  scraper. 
By  shifting'the  position  of  the  movable  pulley  along  the  chain,  the 
scraper  can  excavate  over  a  triangular-shaped  area  having  the 
chain  as  its  base  and  the  machine  as  its  apex.  The  dumping 
apron  is  attached  to  a  pair  of  vibrating  arms  which  raise  it  during 
the  discharge  of  the  hopper  and  thus  prevents  clogging.  The 
machine  can  excavate  to  a  distance  of  80  ft.  below  or  to  its  rear. 


246     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

One  man  is  required  to  operate  the  machine  and  one  is  needed  to 
handle  the  scraper  bucket.  A  two-horse  team  can  haul  the  loader 
over  ordinary  roads. 

The  endless-chain  loader  for  excavation  work  is  operated  in 
conjunction  with  a  slip  scraper  which  delivers  the  earth  to  the 
foot  of  the  ladder  chain  and  this  lifts  and  discharges  the  material 
into  the  car  or  wagon  under  the  spout.  Where  piles  of  sand, 
gravel,  broken  stone,  earth  or  other  materials  are  to  be  trans- 
ported, the  machine  is  backed  up  to  the  pile  and  the  pivoted  ladder 
placed  so  as  to  remove  the  material  from  the  outside  and  bottom 


FIG.   129. — Loader  used  in  loading  trucks  from  cars. 


and  thence  working  into  the  pile  as  the  material  is  elevated. 
See  Fig.  126.  One  man  is  required  to  operate  the  machine 
and  a  shoveler  for  loading  from  a  pile  of  sand,  stone,  etc. 

A  recent  device  has  come  into  use  for  the  loading  of  sand, 
gravel,  crushed  stone,  coal  and  other  similar  material,  into 
wagons,  motor  trucks  and  other  vehicles,  from  railroad  cars, 
gravel  pits,  sand  bins,  cinder  piles,  coal  yards  and  other  sources 
where  the  material  can  be  shoveled  by  hand  or  elevated  by 
mechanical  means  into  the  loader.  As  will  be  seen  from  an 
inspection  of  Fig.  129,  it  consists  of  a  pivoted  steel  hopper  which 
can  be  readily  hung  on  the  side  of  a  car,  wall  or  bin.  It  is  easily 
tipped  by  the  opening  of  a  latch  and  when  empty  returns  auto- 
matically to  the  loading  position.  The  economy  in  its  use  comes 
from  features  of  direct  shoveling  without  waste  and  the  saving 
of  time  usually  lost  by  waiting  for  teams.  The  shovelers  can 


CAR  AND   WAGON  LOADERS  247 

be  filling  the  loaders  while  the  teams  are  away,  and  the  dumping 
of  the  load  requires  only  about  a  minute. 

158.  Cost  of  Operation. — The  relative  economy  of  loading 
a  loose  material  such  as  sand,  gravel,  etc.,  with  an  endless-chain 
loader  and  by  hand  shoveling  is  given  in  the  following  statement 
which  was  furnished  by  the  Efficiency  Department  of  the  Good- 
year Tire  and  Rubber  Company,  Akron,  Ohio : 

Hand  Labor: 

Loading  Wagons,  8  laborers,  3  yd.,  13  min.  (o>  $0 . 25  per  hour .  .  $0 . 435 
Loading  auto  truck,  8  laborers,  2^yd.,  10  min.  (5,  $0.25  per  hour  0.415 
Cost  of  auto  truck  @  $1 .00  per  hour 0. 160 


Cost  per  51A  yards.  .                                                                 .  $1.010 

Cost  per  yard 0 . 184 

Haixs  tl Digging"  Wagon  Loader: 

Loading  wagons,  2  laborers,  3  yd.,  4.8  min.  @,  $0.25  per  hour  $0.040 
Loading  auto  truck,  2  laborers,  2%  yd.,  4  min.  @  $0.25  per 

hour 0.033 

Cost  of  auto  truck  @  $1 . 00  per  hour 0 . 066 

Power  @  %i.  per  cubic  yard 0.028 

Oil,  grease,  interest  on  investment * 0.010 

Cost  per  5>£  yards. .    .  0 . 177 

Cost  per  yard 0.032 

Cost  per  yard  hand  labor $0 . 184 

Cost  per  yard  machine 0 . 032 


Amount  saved  per  yard $0 . 152 

This  saving  is  entirely  exclusive  of  supervision  and  overhead  charges. 
Furthermore  it  was  found  that  the  men  were  forced  to  wait  anywhere  from 
10  to  30  min.  between  loads;  a  loss  of  from  $0.20  to  $0.60  per  load, 
amounting  to  from  $3.00  to  $9.00  per  day.  By  using  the  proposed  machine 
the  cost  of  such  unavoidable  waits  would  be  decreased  approximately  75  per 
cent. 

At  an  average  of  100  yd.  per  day  the  saving  due  to  this  machine  would 
amount  to  $15.00  per  day  and  thus  pay  for  itself  in  approximately  two 
months. 

159.  Resume. — The  excavator  and  loader  is  a  useful  device 
which  has  been  very  recently  developed  to  facilitate  the  handling 
of  great  quantities  of  loose  material.  The  rapid  development 
in  the  use  of  concrete  for  construction  work  has  required  the 


248     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

excavation  and  handling  of  large  amounts  of  sand,  gravel  and 
broken  stone  and  several  forms  of  loading  machines  have  been 
devised  to  meet  this  need.  For  direct  loading  from  a  pile  or 
small  pit,  the  endless  belt  or  continuous  bucket  chain  machine 
has  proved  to  be  very  efficient,  while  for  the  excavation  and  load- 
ing of  material  from  large  pits,  the  scraper-bucket  type  is  the 
most  practicable. 

The  scraper-bucket  excavator  and  loader  is  especially  adapted 
for  the  removal  of  material  from  pits,  cellars,  basements,  etc., 
where  the  working  space  is  limited  and  the  use  of  a  power  exca- 
vator would  be  impracticable.  This  form  of  excavation  is  gener- 
ally done  by  hand  shoveling  at  an  excessive  expenditure  of  time, 
labor  and  expense  and  the  development  of  an  efficient  machine 
will  meet  a  long-felt  want. 

The  unloading  of  cars  into  motor  trucks,  dump  wagons,  etc. 
has  always  been  caried  on  in  a  crude,  expensive  manner  by  hand 
shoveling.  The  use  of  automatic  loaders  is  a  great  saving  of 
time  and  expense,  as  6  men  with  the  loaders  can  ordinarily 
do  the  work  of  8  men  shoveling  directly  from  the  car  into  the 
wagons. 

160.  Bibliography. — For  further  information,  consult  the 
following: 

Magazine  Articles 

1.  Dragline  Excavator  with  Wagon  Loader.  Engineering  News,  January 
14,  1915.  Illustrated,  600  words. 


DIVISION  II 

A    Discussion   of  the   Efficient  and  Economic  Use  of  Various 
Types  of  Excavators  in  Different  Fields  of  Construction. 


249 


CHAPTER  XVII 
HIGHWAY  CONSTRUCTION 

161.  Preliminary. — The  great  development  in  highway  con- 
struction during  recent  years  has  emphasized  the  efficiency  of 
light,  portable  and  adaptable  types  of  excavators  for  the  vary- 
ing needs  of  this  kind  of  work.     Generally  it  is  true  that  each 
machine   has  its  own  special  field  of  usefulness  and  its  own 
economical    method   of   operation.    .The    blade    and    elevating 
graders  have  been  used  for  a  generation  on  road  construction  in  the 
Middle  West  where  they  have  proven  their  special  adaptability 
for  shallow  excavation  and  grading.     Recently,  a  large  capacity 
wheel  scraper  has  come  into  general  use  and  has  demonstrated 
much  greater  efficiency  than  its  older  prototype,  the  two -wheel 
scraper,  for  hauls  greater  than  300  feet.     A  special  form  of  small, 
portable  power  shovel  has  been  developed  for  the  successful  ex- 
cavation of  light  cuts  and  the  removal  of  shallow  layers  of  hard 
material.     A  discussion  of  the  various  types  of  excavators  used 
in  highway  and  street  construction  will  be  given  in  the  following 
paragraphs. 

162.  Scrapers. — The  scraper  is  adapted  to  road  construction 
where  the  topography  requires  the  making  of  a  number  of  small 
cuts  and  the  handling  of  small  quantities  of  earth  on  short  hauls. 
See  Art.  9,  page  6.     The  drag  or  scoop  scraper  has  been  used  to 
some  extent  on  this  type  of  construction  work,  but  is  not  econom- 
ical except  for  light  excavation  on  steep  grades,  and  for  hauls 
of  less  than  200  feet.     Three  to  twelve  teams  traveling  in  a  circle 
or  ellipse  of  about  200  ft.  circumference  can  often  be  worked  to 
advantage.     The  Fresno  scraper  is  the  form  of  drag  scraper  best 
adapted  to  highway  construction  on  account  of  its  long  cutting 
edge  and  ease  and  rapidity  of  loading.     See  Art.   11,   page  8. 
The   depth   of  cut  can  be  varied  from   1  to  12  in.,  and  the 
driver  always  has  the  scraper  under  complete  control  by  the 
operation  of  the  dumping  lever.     The  snatch  team  and  dumpman 
can  often  be  dispensed   with  and  if  the  earth  is  previously 
ploughed,  the  driver  can  load  his  own  scraper.     Generally  the 

250 


HIGHWAY  CONSTRUCTION  251 

drag  scraper  of  any  type  is  only  economical  for  the  moving  of 
earth  which  can  be  loaded  without  the  use  of  a  snatch  team. 
The  Fresno  scraper  can  be  used  efficiently  up  to  hauls  of  300  feet. 

The  two-wheel  scraper  should  be  used  with  snatch  teams  and 
for  work  where  the  amount  of  excavation  does  not  exceed  50,000 
cubic  yard.  The  two-wheel  scraper  can  be  efficiently  used  in 
gangs  of  from  5  to  7  on  hauls  of  from  200  to  500  ft.  for  the  exca- 
vation of  average  soils  at  a  cost  of  from  17  to  25  cents  per  cubic 
yard.  For  stiff  and  heavy  soils  this  cost  would  be  increased  from 
50  to  100  per  cent.  See  Art.  13,  page  10. 

The  best  form  of  wheel  scraper  to  use  on  road  construction 
is  the  four-wheel  scraper  made  in  two  sizes,  J£  and  1  yd.  capaci- 
ties. This  machine  has  come  into  nearly  universal  use  and 
for  nearly  all  conditions  of  soil,  haul,  etc.  has  proved  to  be  su- 
perior to  any  other  type  of  scraper.  For  hauls  of  300  ft.  and 
over  it  is  50  to  100  per  cent,  more  efficient  than  the  two-wheel 
scraper  and  the  efficiency  increases  with  the  length  of  the  haul 
up  to  a  possible  maximum  of  1000  feet.  See  Art.  15,  page  12. 
The  scraper  under  ordinary  conditions  has  an  average  speed  of  120 
ft.  per  minute  including  time  of  loading  and  dumping.  With  a 
traction  engine  about  60  scrapers  can  be  loaded  per  hour  under 
average  conditions  of  soil,  haul,  climate,  etc.  A  1-yd.  scraper 
should  average  about  12  cu.  yd.  per  hour  or  about  100  cu.  yd. 
per  10-hr,  working  day.  The  cost  of  excavation,  including  over- 
head expenses,  should  average  from  8  to  12  cents  per  cubic  yard 
for  a  200  ft.  haul,  and  increase  about  1  cent  per  cubic  yard  per 
100  ft.  increase  in  length  of  haul. 

Scraper  operation  is  very  often  uneconomically  carried  on  be- 
cause of  a  lack  of  proper  planning  and  execution  of  the  work. 
This  is  especially  true  of  highway  construction  where  the  cuts 
are  shallow  and  the  hauls  short.  Care  should  be  exercised  to 
keep  the  scrapers  moving  and  prevent  " bunching"  at  the  load- 
ing and  dumping  points.  A  few  hours  trial  and  time  study 
will  determine  the  proper  number  of  scrapers  to  use  in  any  case, 
a  greater  or  less  number  of  machines  increasing  the  unit  cost  of 
the  work.  The  loading  foreman  should  see  that  each  scraper 
is  fully  loaded  and  especially  for  two-wheel  scrapers,  a  shoveler 
or  the  use  of  gates  may  be  necessary.  The  work  should  be 
routed  that  the  loaded  teams  may  have  the  shorter  haul  and  the 
empty  teams  the  longer  haul.  All  parts  of  the  work,  the  loader, 
the  scrapers  and  the  dumpman  should  all  be  working  uni- 


252     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

formly  and  the  teams  kept  continuously  on  the  move,  so  that 
each  part  of  the  outfit  will  be  properly  coordinating  to  secure  an 
economical  performance  of  the  job  as  a  whole. 

163.  Use  of  Four -wheel  Scrapers  in  Illinois. — The  writer  has 
observed  the  use  of  the  four-wheel  scraper  on  street  and  road 
work  in  Illinois  during  the  years  1914  and  1915.  The  soil  and 
topographic  conditions  were  favorable;  glacial  clay  and  light 
grades.  The  width  of  cut  varied  from  18  to  25  ft.  and  the  depth 
of  excavation  averaged  about  12  inches.  The  average  length  of 
haul  was  about  350  feet.  The  scrapers  were  hauled  by  two-horse 


FIG.  130. — Four-wheel  scrapers  on  highway  construction.        . 

teams  and  loaded  by  a  traction  engine.  A  gang  of  about  7 
scrapers  was  used  for  these  conditions  and  an  average  statement 
of  cost  based  on  a  10-hr,  day  is  given  in  the  following  table: 


Labor: 

2  fireman  @  $4.00 $8.00 

1  cableman 2 . 50 

7  teams  and  drivers  @  $5 . 00. . .  35 . 00 


Total  labor  cost $45.50 

Loading  Auxiliary: 

1  traction  engine  and  operator $16 . 00 


HIGHWAY  CONSTRUCTION 

General  and  Overhead  Expenses: 

Supervision  and  general  expenses $5 . 00 

Interest  on  investment  (7  per  cent,  of  $2000). .  0.70 

Depreciation,  based  on  5-year  life 0 . 90 

Repairs,  estimated 1.10 


253 


Total  overhead  expenses $7 . 70 

Total  cost  of  excavation  per  10-hr,  day $69.20 

Total  excavation » 800  cu.  yd. 

Cost  of  excavation $69 . 20  ^  800  =  $0 . 0865 

A  view  of  a  gang  of  four-wheel  scrapers  on  highway  construc- 
tion is  shown  in  Fig.  130. 

164.  Blade  Graders. — The  blade  or  scraping  grader  is  a  time- 
honored  and  much  used  and  abused  machine  for  the  construction 


FIG.  131. — Two- wheel  grader  sha 


Co.) 


(Courtesy  of  the  Baker  Mfg. 


and  maintenance  of  earth  roads.  The  blade  grader  should  be 
used  for  shaping  up  the  cross-section  after  the  grade  reduction 
has  been  completed  by  the  scraper  or  elevating  grader. 

The  two-wheel  grader  is  suitable  for  the  grading  up  of  old 
roads  and  the  excavation  of  the  side  ditches.  See  Arts.  20  and 
21,  pages  19  and  20.  The  advantages  of  this  form  of  machine  are 
its  lightness,  ease  of  operation,  requiring  a  two-horse  team  and  a 
driver;  and  low  cost  of  operation.  Several  townships  in  Iowa 
and  Illinois  have  used  two-wheel  graders  for  the  construction  of 
side  ditches  and  the  shaping  up  of  roads  with  an  average  output 


254     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

of  1  mile  of  ditch  per  10-hr,  day  at  a  cost  of  about  $10.00 
including  overhead  expense.  Figure  131  shows  a  two-wheel 
grader  opening  up  a  road  ditch. 


The  four-wheel  blade  grader  is  a  very  serviceable  machine 
for  the  shaping  up  of  earth  roads  especially  where  the  grades 
are  light  and  the  soil  conditions  are  favorable.  The  ideal  con- 
ditions for  its  use  are  in  a  prairie  country  where  there  are  few 
rocks  or  stumps  to  hinder  the  work.  See  Art.  22,  page  20. 


HIGHWAY  CONSTRUCTION 


255 


The  blade  grader  is  operated  so  as  to  excavate  a  continuous 
slice  of  earth  from  one  side  of  a  cut  and  move  it  laterally  and 
gradually  by  making  several  trips  or  rounds  of  the  machine. 
The  various  steps  are  shown  in  Fig.  132.  The  grader  begins  at 
the  side  of  the  road  with  the  blade  elevated  so  that  the  point 
acts  as  a  plow.  On  the  second  round,  with  the  front  and  rear 
wheels  in  line  along  the  edge  of  the  road  the  blade  is  lowered 
and  follows  up  the  furrow  made  on  the  first  trip.  The  third 
round  is  made  with  the  rear  wheels  near  the  center  of  the  road, 
the  blade  more  nearly  horizontal  and  swung  around  so  as  to  push 


FIG.   133. — Blade  grader  shaping-up  earth  road.     (Photo  by  Author.) 

the  earth  toward  the  center  of  the  road.  The  final  round  is 
made  with  the  wheels  in  line  and  the  blade  nearly  at  right  angles 
to  the  draft  and  so  hung  as  to  level  off  the  material.  A  typical 
view  of  a  large  size  grader  shaping  up  an  earth  road  is  given  in 
Fig.  133. 

A  great  deal  of  difficulty  has  been  experienced  in  the  use  of  a 
road  grader,  especially  in  the  excavation  of  stiff  or  dense  clay 
soils,  in  preventing  the  displacement  of  the  machine  due  to  the 
lateral  thrust  of  the  material.  Recently  a  type  of  grader,  which 
was  originally  devised  for  ditch  excavation  on  reclamation  work, 
has  been  successfully  adapted  to  road  construction.  This  type 
of  grader  has  pivoted  axles  so  that  the  wheels  can  always  be  main- 
tained in  a  vertical  position.  See  Art.  23,  page  22.  This 


256     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

provides  for  the  utilization  of  the  weight  of  the  machine  to  count- 
eract the  lateral  pressure  of  the  earth  on  the  mold  board  and  thus 
prevent  side  draft.  Where  work  of  considerable  magnitude  is 
included  in  one  job  or  located  in  one  locality,  a  traction  engine 
can  be  used  economically  for  the  hauling  of  the  grader.  Two 
graders  can  be  hauled  by  one  engine  and  thus  serve  to  move  the 
earth  from  the  side  ditch  to  the  center  of  the  road  in  one  operation. 
165.  Use  of  Blade  Graders  in  Iowa. — In  road  construction  in 
Van  Buren  County,  Iowa,  the  tractor  was  a  60-h.p.  gasoline 
engine  and  hauled  two  Reclamation  graders  as  shown  in  Fig. 


FIG.  134. — Reclamation  graders  on  road  construction. 

134.  Sixty  miles  of  earth  road  were  built  (1912)  at  a  cost  of 
$20.00  per  mile.  The  road  was  30  ft.  in  width,  center  to  center 
of  side  ditches,  which  were  20  in.  wide  on  bottom  and  had  depths 
of  36  inches.  The  soil  was  the  average  loam  and  clay  of  the 
prairie  country. 

166.  Elevating  Graders. — The  elevating  grader  has  been 
universally  used  on  road  construction  in  this  country  during 
the  past  generation.  The  ideal  conditions  for  its  use  are  in  level 
country,  and  where  there  are  few  obstructions  such  as  stones, 
roots,  stumps,  etc.  However,  under  average  working  condi- 
tions of  shallow  cuts  and  ordinary  soil,  this  type  of  machine  is 
one  of  the  most  efficient  in  general  use.  It  is  more  economical 


HIGHWAY  CONSTRUCTION 


257 


17 


258     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

than  the  blade  grader  on  road  construction,  since  the  excavated 
material  can  be  moved  as  cheaply  24  ft.  as  10  ft.  from  the  plow 
in  one  operation,  while  with  the  blade  grader  the  distance  to 
which  the  earth  can  be  moved  is  limited  to  the  length  and  set  of 
the  blade.  In  the  shaping  up  of  old  roads  where  the  side  ditches 
are  narrow  and  deep,  the  elevating  grader  is  not  serviceable  and 
the  blade  grader  should  be  used.  As  in  the  case  of  the  four- 
wheel  scraper,  the  elevating  grader  leaves  the  surface  rough  and 
uneven  and  a  blade  grader  must  be  used  to  complete  the  work. 
See  Chapter  IV.  In  the  use  of  the  elevating  grader  on  road 
construction,  the  method  of  operation  and  the  character  of  the 
auxiliary  machinery  will  depend  upon  the  class  of  work  to  be  per- 
formed. Ordinarily,  three  classes  may  be  considered: 

1.  Nearly  level  country  where  the  profile  of  the  new  grade  is 
nearly  parallel  to  the  original  surface. 

2.  Undulating  or  rolling  country,  where  there  are  cuts  and 
filling  not  over  3  ft.  in  depth. 

3.  Broken  or  rough  country  where  the  excavation  is  consid- 
erable. 

In  all  classes  of  work,  the  grader  should  commence  work  at 
one  side  or  edge  of  the  road  and  make  a  furrow  which  is  used 
as  a  guide  in  making  the  succeeding  cut.  As  far  as  possible  the 
work  should  be  done  in  sections  of  considerable  length  so  as  to 
eliminate  loss  of  time  by  frequent  turning  of  the  machine. 
Figure  135  gives  a  diagrammatic  view  of  an  elevating  grader  on 
road  construction. 

On  roads  of  Class  1,  the  excavation  is  made  continuous  through- 
out the  section  and  the  material  deposited  uniformly  along  the 
center  part  of  the  road.  The  proper  distribution  of  the  material 
along  the  road  should  be  done  by  drag  or  wheel  scrapers,  depend- 
ing on  the  length  of  haul  and  the  magnitude  of  the  work. 

On  roads  of  Class  2,  the  excavated  material  is  deposited  on 
the  road  directly  from  the  elevator  only  on  the  low  sections. 
Where  cuts  are  to  be  made,  the  material  is  deposited  in  dump 
wagons  and  hauled  to  the  fills.  Care  should  be  taken  to  plan 
the  work  so  as  to  eliminate  loss  of  time  waiting  for  wagons. 
The  grader  should  be  kept  continuously  in  operation,  with  as 
few  " waits"  and  delays  as  possible.  A  view  of  an  elevating 
grader  on  road  construction  is  shown  in  Fig.  136. 

On  roads  of  Class  3,  the  work  must  be  carried  on  in  relatively 
short  sections,  except  when  the  cuts  are  of  great  magnitude  and 


I 

HIGHWAY  CONSTRUCTION  259 

in  this  case  some  other  type  of  excavator  should  probably  be 
used.  Under  ordinary  conditions,  the  revolving  type  of  power 
shovel  or  scraper-bucket  excavator  is  the  more  efficient  form 
of  machine  to  use  in  this  class  of  road  construction  where  the 
magnitude  of  the  work  exceeds  50,000  cubic  yards. 


FIG.  136. — Elevating    grader    on    road    construction.     (Courtesy    of    Western 
Wheeled  Scraper  Co.) 

167.  Relative  Cost  of  Use  of  Elevating  Graders  with  Animal 
and  Tractor  Power. — The  power  tractor  is  the  more  economical 
form  of  power  for  the  hauling  of  grading  machines.  The  fol- 
lowing statement  has  been  prepared  to  show  the  relative  cost  of 
excavation  with  animal  power  and  with  the  use  of  the  power 
tractor.  This  is  based  on  average .  working  conditions  and  in 
fairly  level  country  and  for  work  under  Class  1. 

ANIMAL  POWER 
Labor: 

7  teams  @  $3.00 $21.00 

2  drivers  @  $3.50 7.00 

1  operator 4 . 00 

Total  labor  cost $32.00 

General: 

Interest  on  investment  @  6  per  cent $1 . 20 

Depreciation,  based  on  10-year  life 2 . 00 

Repairs  and  general  expenses 1 . 30 

Total  general  expenses $4 . 50 

Total  cost  per  10-hr,  day $36 . 50 

Amount  of  excavation 800  cu.  yd. 

Cost  per  cubic  yard,  $36.50  -J-  800  =  $0.045 


260    EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

GASOLINE  TRACTOR 
Labor: 

1  engineer $5 . 00 

1  operator 4 . 00 


Total  labor  cost $9.00 

Power: 

Gasoline  30  gal.  @  25£ $7.50 

Cylinder  oil,  \Yz  gal. @  50^ 0. 75 

Grease,  2  Ib 0.25 

Repairs,  waste,  etc 1 . 00 


Total  power  cost $9 . 50 

General: 

Interest  on  investment  @  6  per  cent $2 . 40 

Depreciation,  based  on  10-year  life 4.00 

Repairs,  and  general  expenses 1 . 60 


Total  general  expenses $8 . 00 


Total  cost  per  10-hr,  day $26 . 50 

Amount  of  excavation 1000  cu.  yd. 

Cost  per  cubic  yard,  $26.50  -f-  1000  =  $0.026 

168.  Power  Shovels. — The  steam  shovel  has  become  one  of 
the  best  known  and  most  generally  used  of  power  excavators. 
The  advent  of  the  light,  portable  type  of  revolving  shovel  has 
greatly  enlarged  the  field  of  use  of  the  power  shovel  and  one  of  the 
new  lines  of  operation  is  highway  construction.     See  Art.  39, 
page  36.     The  revolving  shovel  is  a  machine  of  small  capacity, 
light  weight,  rapid  action  and  easy  portability.     The  essential 
features  of  this  type  of  excavator  are  the  full-circle  swing  and 
separate  hoisting,  swinging  and  thrusting  engines,  the  last  of 
which  provides  for  the  pushing  of  the  dipper  forward  into  the 
earth  and  for  the  prying  up  of  hard  materials.     See  Fig.  137. 
During  recent  years,  it  has  been  successfully  used  in  all  types 
of  road  construction  and  maintenance;  the  excavation  of  all 
classes  of  earth  and  of  cuts  from  6  in.  to  15  ft.,  of  hard  road  sur- 
face and  street  pavements,  the  operation  over  steep  grades,  and 
its  adaptability  to  side-hill  work. 

169.  Use  of  Revolving  Shovel  in  California. — A  section  of  the 
Pacific  Highway  near  Redding,  California  was  completed  in  the 
Spring  of  1915  and  gives  a  clear  idea  of  highway  construction  where 
heavy  side-hill  work  is  involved.     Figure  138  shows  the  shovel 


HIGHWAY  CONSTRUCTION 


261 


in  operation.     The  contract  comprised  the  handing  of  200,000 
cu.  yd.  of  excavation,  50  per  cent,  of  which  was  earth,  25  per  cent. 


FIG.  137. — Steam    shovel    removing    old    street  surface.     (Courtesy    of    Thew 
Automatic  Shovel  Co.) 


FIG.   138. — Revolving    shovel    on    highway    construction.     (Courtesy    of    the 
Excavating  Engineer. 

loose  rock'and  25  per  cent,  solid  rock  requiring  blasting.     The 
work  was  done  partly  by  overcasting  and  partly  by  the  use  of 


262    EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

1-yd.  dump  cars  operated  on  narrow  gage  tracks.  See  Fig.  138. 
The  length  of  the  line  graded  was  16  miles  and  the  road  bed  had 
a  width  of  10  ft.  in  cuts  and  19  ft.  in  fills.  The  work  was  com- 
pleted in  about  300  days.  The  shovel  was  a  Bucyrus  revolving 
steam-operated  shovel,  equipped  with  a  25-ft.  boom  and  a  1-yd. 
dipper. 

170.  Use  of  Revolving  Shovel  in  Iowa. — An  example  of  high- 
way construction  through  typical  rolling  country  is  shown  in 
Fig.  139.  The  contract  comprised  the  reconstruction  of  the 
"Four  Mile  Hill"  near  Marshalltown,  Iowa,  as  a  section  of  the 


FIG.  139. — Highway     construction     in     rolling     country.     (Courtesy     of     the 
Excavating   Engineer.) 

Lincoln  Highway.  The  original  road  on  a  grade  of  from  12  to 
15  per  cent,  was  lowered  to  a  grade  of  7  per  cent,  and  involved 
the  excavation  of  8200  cu.  yd.  of  compact  glacial  clay  at  an 
average  cost  of  25  cents  per  cubic  yard.  The  work  required 
32  days  during  April  and  May,  1914.  The  excavator  was  a 
14-B  Bucyrus  revolving  steam  shovel  equipped  with  a  %-yd. 
dipper.  Ten  dump  wagons  were  used  for  the  transportation 
of  the  excavated  material.  The  average  haul  was  700  ft.  and 
the  maximum  was  1200  feet.  On  April  18,  372  wagons  were 
loaded  in  7  hr.,  on  April  19,  387  were  loaded  in  8  hr.  and  on 
April  30,  391  were  loaded  in  8  hours.  The  labor  crew  consisted 
of  a  foreman,  an  engineer  and  a  fireman,  in  addition  to  a  daily 


HIGHWAY  CONSTRUCTION 


263 


supply  of  from  6  to  8  teams  and  drivers.     The  shovel  consumed 
on  an  average  a  ton  of  coal  per  day. 

171.  Revolving  Shovel  in  Shallow  Excavation. — Up  until  very 
recently  (1913),  the  power  shovel  has  been  economically  used 
only  for  work  of  considerable  magnitude  and  where  the  cuts  were 
greater  than  3  feet.  However,  later  experience  has  demonstrated 
the  adaptability  of  the  revolving  shovel  to  the  work  of  shallow 
excavation,  such  as  the  removal  of  old  street  surfaces  and  pave- 
ments and  the  excavation  for  new  street  pavement  foundations. 


FIG.   140. — Steam  shovel  excavating  for  pavement. 

malic  Shovel  Co.) 


(Courtesy  of  Thew  Auto- 


See  Fig.  140.  Several  cases  which  have  come  to  the  author's 
attention,  during  the  past  3  years,  have  shown  that  for  ordi- 
nary grading  work  in  street  pavement  construction,  the  average 
cost  varied  from  8  to  10  cents  per  cubic  yard  when  the  depth 
of  cut  was  about  12  inch.  For  the  excavation  of  hard  surface 
material  such  as  old  street  pavements,  the  cost  would  be  from 
12  to  15  cents  per  cubic  yard.  These  figures  assume  an  average 
haul  of  300  ft.  for  the  dump  wagons  and  the  use  of  a  %-yd.  or 
%-yd.  revolving  shovel.  The  following  statement  in  Table 
XIII  gives  an  approximate  idea  of  the  performance  to  be 


264     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


expected  of  a  %-yd.   revolving  power  shovel   under  average 
working  conditions  for  a  10-hr,  day. 

TABLE  XIII. — CAPACITIES  OF  A  REVOLVING  SHOVEL  IN  SHALLOW 
EXCAVATIONS 


Classification  of  material 

Depth 
of  cut, 

Loose  earth 

Packed  earth 

Hard-pan 

Pavements 

inches 

I 

Output, 
cu.  yd. 

No.  of 
observa- 

Output, 
cu.  yd. 

No.  of 
observa- 

Output, 
cu.  yd. 

No.  of 
observa- 

Output, 
cu.  yd. 

No.  of 
observa- 

tions 

tions 

tions 

tions 

18 

360 

12 

280 

9 

225 

3 

300 

2 

12 

300 

5 

240 

7 

175 

4 

250 

4 

9 

250 

3 

200 

4 

150 

1 

200 

2 

6 

200 

1 

150 

3 

100 

1 

150 

1 

In  shallow  excavation  the  proportion  of  time  spent  in  "  mov- 
ing up"  will  be  much  greater  than  that  of  the  fixed-platform 
type  of  power  shovel  used  in  work  of  average  extent  (see  page 
51)  and  would  vary  inversely  as  the  cut.  There  would  be 
a  proportionate  decrease  in  the  actual  loading  time.  Hence, 
it  is  clear  that  it  would  be  uneconomical  to  use  a  power  shovel 
when  the  total  quantity  of  excavation  is  so  small  that  the  fixed 
charges  of  installation  of  the  shovel  on  the  job  and  its  removal 
therefrom  would  bring  the  unit  cost  of  operation  above  that 
obtained  by  the  use  of  other  methods  and  machinery. 

172.  Continuous  Bucket  Excavators. — During  the  past  2 
years  (1916  and  1917),  several  excavators  of  the  continuous 
bucket  type  have  been  devised  and  used  to  a  limited  extent  in 
street  grading.  These  machines  all  embody  the  features  of  the 
endless-chain  type  of  continuous  bucket  excavator  for  the  pur- 
pose of  making  a  shallow  cut  of  a  limited  width  and  to  a  definite 
grade.  See  Art.  84,  page  120. 

A  construction  company  of  Illinois  has  devised  an  attach- 
ment for  an  ordinary  continuous  bucket  trench  machine.  This 
consists  of  a  cutter  frame,  5  ft.  10  in.  in  diameter,  rotated  by 
the  bucket  chain,  which  travels  on  sprockets  on  the  shaft  of  the 
cutter  frame.  The  cutter  is  made  up  of  6  rows  of  8  teeth 
each.  Inclined  plates  are  so  located  as  to  transfer  the  earth 
loosened  by  the  teeth  to  the  buckets,  which  elevate  it  to  the  cross 
conveyor  delivering  to  the  spoil  bank  or  dump  wagons.  At  the 
rear  of  the  cutter  frame  is  a  scraper  or  templet  plate  which 


f 

HIGHWAY  CONSTRUCTION  265 

serves  to  catch  the  stray  material  and  to  trim  the  grade.  See 
Fig.  141.  This  excavator  can  cut  a  strip  having  a  width  of  8^ 
ft.  and  a  depth  varying  from  2  in.  to  5^  feet.  The  cutter  frame 
is  pivoted  to  the  rear  of  the  main  frame  and  its  elevation  is 
regulated  by  a  screw  device.  The  machine  can  be  adapted  to 
the  preparation  of  the  subgrade  for  a  wide  street  pavement  by 
making  the  side  cuts  first  and  to  the  proper  pitch  required  by  the 
crown  of  the  street.  The  cutters  are  .  sufficiently  rigid  and 
strong  to  dig  up  old  macadam  paving. 


FIG.  141. — Continuous  bucket  excavator  on  street  grading. 

A  continuous  bucket  or  wheel  grader  has  recently  been  used 
successfully  on  street  grading  in  the  Middle  West.  It  is  called 
the  turbine  traction  grader  and  is  manufactured  by  the  Koehring 
Machine  Company  of  Milwaukee,  Wisconsin.  An  inspection 
of  Fig.  142  will  give  an  idea  of  the  construction  and  method  of 
operation  of  the  machine. 

A  steel-framed  platform  carries  the  operating  equipment  at 
the  front  end  and  the  excavating  equipment  at  the  rear  end.  The 
operating  equipment  consists  of  a  45-h.p.,  four-cylinder,  four- 
cycle, vertical  gas  engine,  or  a  25-h.p.,  vertical,  duplex  steam 
engine  and  a  30-h.p.  vertical,  multi-tubular  boiler.  The  engine 
operates  the  excavating  equipment  by  a  chain  drive  and  the 


266     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

multiplane  tractors  by  gear  drive.  The  excavating  equipment 
is  composed  of  a  rotating  cylinder  on  which  are  mounted  12 
buckets,  on  the  cutting  edges  of  which  are  rooters  which  excavate 
the  material,  dropping  it  back  into  the  buckets  which  in  turn 
elevate  and  dump  it  on  the  belt  conveyor,  extending  at  right 
angles  from  the  side  of  the  machine  in  position  to  discharge 
the  material  directly  into  wagons,  cars,  or  trucks.  The  cutting 
wheel  can  be  adjusted  vertically  to  make  a  cut  of  from  1  in.  to 
2  ft.  in  depth,  and  the  finished  cut  has  a  width  of  5  ft.  7  inches. 


FIG.  142. — Turbine    traction    grader    on    street    construction.     (Courtesy    of 
Koehring  Machine  Co.) 


While  in  operation  the  machine  may  be  moved  ahead  at  any 
one  of  three  speeds  depending  on  the  depth  of  cut  and  character 
of  the  material. 

A  grader  was  used  during  July,  1917,  in  Chicago  on  street 
grading.  The  material  was  clay,  and  the  machine  was  operated 
by  a  34-h.p.  engine.  The  following  is  a  statement  of  the  cost  of 
operation  during  a  typical  9-hr,  day: 

Labor: 

1  foreman $6 . 00 

1  operator 7.00 

1  helper 3.50 

2  laborers  @  $3 .00 6.00 

7  teams  @  $7.00..                                        .  119.00 


Total  labor  cost.  .  .  $141.50 


f 

HIGHWAY  CONSTRUCTION  267 

Fuel: 

Gasoline  and  oil .   $12 . 50 


Total  cost  of  operation $154 . 00 

Total  excavation 624  cu.  yd. 

Cost  per  cubic  yard,  $154.00  +  624  =  $0.247 

The  dump  wagons  were  of  1  %  yd.  capacity  and  were  loaded 
in  from  59  to  70  sec.  and  hauled  about  J^  mile  to  the  dump. 

173.  Resume. — In  the  selection  of  an  excavator  for  highway 
construction,  the  essential  considerations  are  lightness,  portable- 
ness,  ease  and  rapidity  of  operation  and  special  adaptability  to 
special  kinds  of  work. 

In  the  early  days  of  road  building,  a  generation  ago,  the  scrap- 
ers and  graders  were  used  in  a  crude,  unscientific  way  without 
much  regard  to  their  efficiency  or  adaptability  to  the  particular 
work  in  hand.  With  the  rennaissance  in  road  construction 
during  the  past  decade,  these  time-honored  types  of  excavators 
have  been  studied  as  to  their  peculiar  limitations  of  efficient 
use  and  new  types  have  been  introduced  to  meet  the  demands  of 
modern  construction  work. 

Slip  or  scoop  scrapers  are  suitable  for  small  work  where  the 
haul  is  about  100  ft.  and  especially  in  cooperation  with  an  ele- 
vating grader  for  light  cuts  and  fills.  The  Fresno  scraper  is 
efficient  for  hauls  up  to  250  ft.  and  where  the  wide  cutting  edge 
may  be  used  to  advantage  in  pushing  earth  over  short  distances. 

The  wheel  scraper  is  more  efficient  than  the  scoop  or  Fresno 
scraper  for  hauls  over  250  ft.  and  where  the  soil  must  be  pre- 
viously loosened.  .  Under  average  conditions  the  four-wheel 
scraper  is  the  best  type  of  scraper  to  use  in  highway  or  road 
work  and  is  efficient  up  to  hauls  of  1000  feet. 

The  blade  grader  is  of  especial  service  in  road  maintenance 
and  the  smoothing  and  leveling  off  of  a  surface  previously  pre- 
pared by  a  scraper  or  elevating  grader.  As  the  blade  grader 
moves  earth  by  pushing  or  sliding  it  along  the  surface,  it  is 
only  adapted  to  shallow  excavation. 

The  elevating  grader  can  be  used  successfully  in  grade  reduc- 
tion in  conjunction  with  scrapers  for  light  cuts  or  with  dump 
wagons  for  the  heavier  work.  In  nearly  level  country  or  where 
the  grade  reduction  work  is  completed,  the  elevating  grader  is 
an  efficient  machine  for  the  "shaping  up"  of  the  cross-section 
of  the  road. 


268     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

In  highway  construction  through  rough  country  where  the  ex- 
cavation is  of  considerable  magnitude  and  side-hill  work  occurs, 
the  revolving  power  shovel  is  the  most  efficient  machine  to  use. 
The  introduction  of  the  crowding  or  thrusting  device  for  the  hori- 
zontal movement  of  the  dipper  arm  has  brought  the  small,  port- 
able revolving  shovel  into  the  field  of  shallow  excavation  for 
street  pavement  construction,  where  it  is  especially  useful  in  the 
excavation  of  hard  materials. 


$2.00 


500         1000       1500        2000       2500        3000       3500       4000 
Length  of  Haurtn  Feet 

FIG.  143. — Cost  of  grading  in  highway  construction. 

The  latest  type  of  continuous  bucket  machine  has  proved  its 
efficiency  particularly  in  the  excavation  of  roads  and  streets 
for  pavements.  The  author  believes  that  the  greatest  develop- 
ments in  machinery  for  road  construction  will  be  of  this  type 
in  the  future. 

The  cost  of  moving  earth  in  highway  construction  varies 
greatly  with  local  conditions  of  climate,  soil,  topography,  labor, 
etc.1  Figure  143  gives  a  graphic  comparison  of  the  cost  of 
grading  by  various  methods.  The  figures  are  based  upon  a  wage 
scale  of  15  cents  per  hour  and  capable  supervision. 

1  See  Engineering  Record,  Vol.  70,  page  570. 


HIGHWAY  CONSTRUCTION 


269 


Table  XIV1  gives  the  cost  of  earthwork  on  four  roads  in  New 
York  State  and  represents  easy,  average  and  difficult  work.  The 
cost  per  cubic  yard  includes  excavation  and  placing  in  fill,  shap- 
ing the  subgrade  for  the  stone,  and  trimming  the  shoulders  and 
ditches.  For  heavy  fills  with  short  hauls,  wheel  scrapers  were 
used,  but  the  larger  part  of  the  work  was  done  by  wagons. 

TABLE  XIV. — EARTH  EXCAVATIONS — NEW  YORK  STATE  ROADS 


Road 
No. 

Length, 
miles 

Total  exca- 
vation, 
cu.  yd. 

Wages  per  hour 

Cost 
per 
cu.  yd. 

Kind  of  soil 

Men 

Teams 

1 

2 

2.5 
5.5 

8,600 

$0.175 

$0.45 

$0.452 

Loam    and    gravel, 
easy  work. 

28,000 

0.175 

0.45 

0.482 

Largely  clay,   hard 
excavation. 

3 

6.0 

18,000 

0.150 
0.175 

0.45 

0.460 

Gravel,    sand,    clay, 
loam,    etc.,   average 
work. 

4 

4.0 

10,000 

0.45 

0.650 

Small    boulders,     25 
per  cent,  excavation, 
difficult  excavation. 

174.  Bibliography. — The  reader  is  referred  to  the  following  for 
further  information: 


Books 

1.  "Construction  of  Roads  and  Pavements,"  by  T.  R.  AGO,  published  in 
1916  by  McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  New  York.     6  in.  X  9  in.,  432  pages, 
116  figures.     Cost,  $3.00. 

2.  "Earthwork  and  Its  Cost,"  by  H.  P.  GILLETTE,  published  in  1912  by 
McGraw-Hill    Book   Company,    New   York.     5   in.  X  8   in.,    238   pages, 
60  figures.     Cost,  $2.00. 

3.  "Elements  of  Highway  Engineering,"  by  A.  H.  BLANCH ARD,  published 
in  1915  by  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  New  York.     6  in.  X  9  in.,  497  pages,  202 
figures.     Cost,  $3.00. 

4.  "Handbook    of    Cost   Data,"  by    H.     P.    GILLETTE,    published   by 
McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  New  York.     4%  in.   X  7  in.,  1900  pages. 
Cost,  $5.00. 


1  From  Harger  &  Bonney's  Highway  Engineer's  Handbook. 


270     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

5.  "Highway  Engineers'  Handbook,"  by  HARGER  and  BONNEY,  pub- 
lished in  1916  by  McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  New  York.     4  in.  X  7  in., 
609  pages,  figures.     Cost,  $3.00. 

6.  "Roads  and  Pavements,"  by  IRA  O.  BAKER,  published  in  1914  by 
John  Wiley  &  Sons,  New  York.     6  in.  X    9  in.,  698  pages,  171  figures. 
Cost,  $4.50. 

7.  "Textbook  on  Highway  Engineering,"  by  BLANCHARD  and  DROWNE, 
published  in  1911  by  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  New  York.     6  in.  X  9  in.,  761 
pages,  234  figures.     Cost,  $4.50. 

Magazine  Articles 

1.  Conditions  Determining  Maximum  Grades  and  Methods  and  Cost  of 
Road  Grading  in  West  Virginia.     Engineering  &  Contracting,  January  6, 
1915.     2000  words. 

2.  Design   and    Construction   of    Earth    Roads   in    Iowa.     Engineering 
News,  April  16,  1914.     Illustrated,  2700  words. 

3.  Detailed  Cost  of  Constructing  a  Sand-Gumbo  Road  in  Mississippi 
County,  Missouri.     Engineering-Contracting,  October  27,  1909.     Illustrated, 
600  words. 

4.  Earth  Handled  Cheaply  in  Grading  Utah  Roads.     Engineering  News, 
July  6,   1916.     Illustrated,  1000  words. 

5.  Earth    Road    Construction   in    Murray    County,    Minnesota.     Engi- 
neering &  Contracting,  August  2,  1916.     Illustrated,  1500  words. 

6.  Efficient  Plant  Used  in  Excavating  Gravel  for  Road  Work.     Con- 
tractor, July  1,  1916.     Illustrated,  2500  words. 

7.  Gasoline    Tractor    for    Southern    Road    Work.     Engineering    News, 
August  27,  1914.     Illustrated,  1300  words. 

8.  Gravel  Road  Construction  in  Wisconsin.     Engineering  News,  October 
15,  1914.     2200  words. 

9.  Hydraulic  Excavation  Methods  in  Seattle.     Engineering  Record,  May 
4,  1912.     Illustrated,  2500  words. 

10.  Industrial   Railways  in   Road   Construction.     Engineering   &   Con- 
tracting, February  7,  1917.     1500  words. 

11.  Making  a  Highway  in  Two  Days.     Engineering  News,  October  10, 
1912.     Illustrated,  4000  words. 

12.  Methods  and  Cost  of  Gravel  Road  Construction  in  a  Road  Improve- 
ment  District   in   Loundes   County,    Miss.     Engineering    &    Contracting, 
September  23,  1914.     Illustrated,  1800  words. 

13.  Methods  of  Handling  Earth  in  Road  Construction,  C.  R.  THOMAS. 
Engineering  &  Contracting,  February  7,  1917.     1500  words. 

14.  Operation  Analysis  of  New  Machines  Which  Cheapen  the  Moving  of 
Earth  on   Road  Work.     Engineering  Record,  July  31,   1915.     Illustrated, 
3000  words. 

15.  Practical  Road  Building.     Municipal  Engineering,  April,  1912.     1500 
words. 

16.  Revolving  Shovel  Operation  on  the  Mississippi  River  Power  Com- 
pany's Project,  near  Keokuk,  Iowa.     Excavating  Engineer,  December,  1913. 
Illustrated,  1500  words. 


HIGHWAY  CONSTRUCTION  271 

17.  Road  Construction  Work  by  Grading  Camp  Maintained  by  County. 
Engineering-Contracting,  September  30,  1908.     900  words. 

18.  Road  Making  in  the  United  States.     Surveyor,  September  9,  1910. 
4000  words. 

19.  Street   Grading   in   Everett,    Washington   with    Revolving   Shovel. 
Excavating  Engineer,  February,  1914.     Illustrated,  300  words. 

20.  Street  Grading  with  a  Revolving  Shovel  in  Los  Angeles.     Excavating 
Engineer,  June,  1914.     Illustrated,  800  words. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
RAILROAD  CONSTRUCTION 

176.  Preliminary. — Since  the  early  days  of  railroad  construc- 
tion in  this  country,  about  50  years  ago,  great  progress  has  been 
made  in  the  methods  of  earthwork.  The  original  crude  methods 
of  hand  labor  have  been  largely  superseded  by  large  and  efficient 
power  machinery.  During  the  past  decade,  the  use  of  the  steam 
shovel  has  been  put  on  a  much  more  efficient  basis  than  formerly, 
and  the  introduction  of  the  revolving  shovel  and  the  scraper- 
bucket  excavator  has  been  a  great  factor  in  recent  realinement 
and  grade  reduction  work. 

During  the  past  5  years  especially,  considerable  advance 
has  been  made  in  the  economical  and  efficient  handling  of  machin- 
ery. This  progress  has  been  coincident  with  the  development  of 
the  science  of  management  in  the  industries  and  the  result  of  the 
introduction  of  the  principles  of  efficiency  engineering  in  the 
handling  of  earth.  The  most  notable  progress  has  been  made  in 
the  operation  of  steam-shovel  outfits  in  the  construction  of  large 
cuts  and  fills.  Labor-saving  devices  have  been  employed  to  great 
advantage  in  conjunction  with  new  and  more  efficient  meth- 
ods. Thus  the  gradual  adoption  of  new  devices  and  efficient 
methods  have  replaced  the  former  dependance  upon  manual 
labor  and  rule-of-thumb  methods. 

.  A  discussion  of  the  various  types  of  excavators  used  in  rail- 
road construction  and  maintenance  will  be  given  in  the  follow- 
ing sections. 

176.  Scrapers. — The  use  of  the  drag  and  wheel  scrapers  has 
become  a  well-known  factor  in  railroad  construction.  A  quarter 
of  a  century  ago  during  the  period  of  great  railroad  development 
in  this  country,  the  scraper  and  the  cart  or  wagon  were  univer- 
sally used.  Gradually,  the  fields  of  efficient  employment  of  the 
various  types  became  known  and  understood  as  the  steam  shovel 
came  into  prominence  on  work  of  considerable  magnitude.  At 
the  present  time,  each  type  of  excavator  has  its  special  function 

272 


RAILROAD  CONSTRUCTION 


273 


and  scope  of  economic  employment  and  this  has  become  espe- 
cially true  with  respect  to  the  various  forms  of  scrapers.  See 
Art.  9,  page  6  and  Art.  162,  page  250. 

An  excellent  analysis  of  scraper  work  was  made  by  Mr.  A.  C. 
Haskell  for  the  Construction  Service  Company  of  New  York.1 
The  following  statement  is  of  interest  and  value  to  those  who 
have  estimates  and  studies  to  make  in  the  use  of  scrapers  for 
earthwork. 

The  general  economic  formula  for  transportation  is  as  fol- 
lows: 


Symbol 


Factor 


C. 

w. 


s 

KS.. 


I... 
Rt  . 
W.. 


D/S 

D/KS 

1  +D  /KS. 


w 


Ww 


+ 1 


Ww 


The  total  expenses  per  day  in  cents. 

The  net  load,  for  the  average  trip,  in  pounds,  or 
other  convenient  unit. 

The  speed  (average)  when  loaded,  in  feet  per 
minute. 

The  speed  (average)  when  returning,  in  feet  per 
minute. 

The  length  of  haul  in  feet. 

The  time  lost  in  turning,  resting,  and  wasted  for 
an  average  round  trip,  in  minutes. 

The  total  cost  in  cents  per  ton  for  transpor- 
tation. 

The  number  of  minutes  in  the  working  day. 

The  following  facts  are  deducible  algebraically: 

Time  for  a  loaded  trip,  in  minutes. 
Time  for  the  empty  haul. 

Actual  time  not  occupied  in  transporting 
material,  in  minutes. 

Average  time  for  one  round  trip,  in  minutes. 

Average  number  of  trips  per  day.  This  value 
must  be  an  integral  quantity,  for  the  average 
work  for  any  one  day. 

Average  total  amount  transported  per  day. 


Cost  of  transportation  per  pound,  or  other  con 
venient  unit. 


1  See  Engineering  and  Contracting,  June  3,  1914,  page  629. 

18 


274    EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

The  value  of  "C"  will  depend  on  the  number  of  horses  used  to 
haul  the  scraper,  the  nature  of  the  loading  auxiliary,  the  organi- 
zation and  operation  of  the  outfit  and  to  a  lesser  extent  upon  the 
repairs,  depreciation  and  other  overhead  expenses.  The  value  of 
"w"  will  depend  on  the  character  and  size  of  the  equipment,  the 
efficiency  of  operation  and  maintenance  of  the  machines.  The 


Formulae  Rcv.= ^l-^  +^  (t-+£-)] 
S  =  Scraper  Gang 


Wheel  Scrapers  in  Loam 

• Sand 

_  Fresno       "        "All  Material 


70 


60 


Wheeler's  Loam  -  Wheeler's  Sand  Fresno  All  Material 

C  8.96  <f  8.96  ^  8.79  c 

L  1.54  min.  1.75  min.        0.67  min. 

W  600     "  600     l'          600     " 

-S  2.09  Ft.min.  2.15  Ft.min.  2.12 Ft.min.  .CVv 

K  1.1  1.1  1.06  ^^ 

L/K  0.91  0.91  0.95 


400         500         600         700 
Lenght  of  Haul  in  Feet 


800 


900        1000 


FIG.  144. — Cost  of  earthwork  with  Fresno  and  wheel  scrapers.     (Courtesy    of 
Engineering  &  Contracting.) 


results  of  a  large  number  of  observations  of  the  use  of  wheel  and 
Fresno  scrapers  in  the  excavation  of  various  kinds  of  soil  are 
summarized  in  Fig.  144. 

177.  Use  of  Wheel  Scrapers.1 — The  following  statement  gives 
a  comparative  study  of  the  use  of  the  wheel  scraper  in  the  con- 
struction of  railroad  grades.  The  reader  should  note  the  rela- 
tion between  the  cost  of  excavation  and  the  length  of  lead  or 
haul. 


1  Abstracted  from  Engineering-Contracting,  September  4  and  25,  1907. 


RAILROAD  CONSTRUCTION  275 

The  labor  schedule  for  all  of  the  work  based  on  a  10-hr, 
working  day,  was  as  follows: 

Foreman $3.00 

Extra  foreman 2 . 50 

Scraper  team  and  driver 4 . 75 

Four-horse  plow  team  and  two  men 9 . 20 

Three-horse  snatch  team  and  one  man 6 . 00 

Three-horse  plow  team  and  two  men 7 . 50 

Two-horse  snatch  team  and  one  man 4.60 

Loaders 1 . 60 

Laborers 1 . 50 

Water  boy 1 .00 

A  four-horse  plow  team  was  used  to  loosen  the  earth  and  in 
Case  V,  a  three-horse  team  was  used  when  sand  was  encountered. 
A  three-horse  snatch  team  was  used  in  loading  .the  scrapers  and  in 
Case  V,  a  two-horse  team  was  used  in  sandy  soil.  The  wheel 
scrapers  were  all  No.  2J£  with  a  capacity  of  about  J^  cu.yd., 
place  measurement.  Two  men  loaded  and  dumped  each  scraper, 
except  in  Case  I.  The  work  was  done  in  the  fall  of  the  year 
when  climatic  conditions  were  favorable  for  grading  work. 

Case  I. — The  material  moved  in  this  case  was  a  sandy  loam, 
which  was  easily  plowed  and  scraped  up.  The  lead  was  260  ft., 
making  a  round  trip  of  600  ft.  for  each  team  and  a  total  distance 
per  day  for  each  scraper  of  about  12  miles.  Five  scrapers  were 
worked  together  on  this  job.  The  average  amount  of  earth 
moved  per  10-hr,  day  was  34  cu.  yd.  for  each  scraper  and  31 
cu.  yd.  for  each  team  employed. 

The  cost  of  excavation  per  cubic  yard  of  earth  method  is  given 
below : 

Foreman $0.017 

Scrapers 0 . 138 

Plowing 0.052 

Snatching 0.034 

Loaders 0 . 018 

Dumping 0.008 

Water  boy 0.006 

Total  cost  per  cubic  yard $0. 273 

Case  II. — The  material  excavated  on  this  work  was  an  average 
clay,  fairly  easy  to  handle.  The  lead  was  300  ft.,  a  round  trip  of 
700  ft.  for  each  team  and  a  total  distance  per  day  for  each  scraper 


276    EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

of  about  12  miles  were  made.  Five  scrapers  were  used  together. 
The  average  amount  of  earth  moved  during  a  10-hr,  day  was 
30  cu.  yd.  for  each  scraper  and  19  cu.  yd.  for  each  team 
employed. 

The  cost  of  excavation  per  cubic  yard  of  earth  moved  is  given 
below : 

Foreman $0 . 019 

Scrapers 0 . 158 

Plowing 0 . 057 

Snatching 0 . 037 

Loaders 0 . 020 

Dumping 0 . 016 

Water  boy 0.004 


Total  cost  per  cubic  yard $0.311 

Case  III. — The  material  on  this  work  was  a  wet  clay,  saturated 
with  water  from  recent  rains  and  local  springs.  The  lead 
was  400  ft.,  making  a  round  trip  of  1000  ft.  for  each  team  and  a 
total  distance  traveled  per  day  of  12^  miles.  Five  scrapers 
were  used  in  a  gang  as  in  the  previous  cases.  The  embankment 
was  made  on  marshy  land  and  the  services  of  an  extra  laborer 
were  required  to  shovel  earth  ahead  of  the  teams.  The  average 
amount  of  earth  moved  was  22  cu.  yd.  for  each  scraper  and  13 
cu.  yd.  for  each  team  employed. 

The  cost  of  excavation  per  cubic  yard  of  earth  moved  is  given 
below : 

Foreman $0 . 026 

Scrapers 0 . 216 

Plowing 0 . 080 

Snatching 0 . 052 

Loaders 0 . 028 

Dumping 0 . 039 

Water  boy 0.009 


Total  cost  per  cubic  yard $0 . 450 

Case  IV. — The  material  excavated  on  this  work  was  a  fine 
sand  which  retarded  the  work  by  allowing  the  wheels  of  the  scrap- 
ers to  sink  below  the  surface  until  the  bottoms  of  the  bowls 
touched.  The  lead  was  500  ft.,  making  a  round  trip  of  1000  ft. 
for  each  team  and  a  total  distance  traveled  per  day  of  12J/2  miles. 
Six  scrapers  were  worked  in  a  gang.  The  average  amount  of 


RAILROAD  CONSTRUCTION  277 


earth  moved  was  21 K  cu.  yd.  for  each  scraper  and  13  cu.  yd. 
for  each  team  employed. 

The  cost  of  excavation  per  cubic  yard  of  earth  moved  is  given 
below: 

Foreman $0.024 

Scrapers 0.222 

Plowing 0.073 

Snatching 0.050 

Loaders 0.026 

Dumping 0 . 027 

Water  boy 0.008 

Total  cost  per  cubic  yard $0 . 430 

Case  V. — The  material  was  a  light  red  clay  and  sandy  loam 
running  into  sand  in  the  bottom  of  the  cut.  The  cut  required 
the  excavation  of  2000  cubic  yards.  The  lead  was  700  ft.  and  the 
total  distance  traveled  per  day  by  each  team  was  6  miles.  The 
embankment  was  made  over  a  tide-water  marsh,  and  in  many 
places  the  surface  would  not  support  a  man.  There  brush  was 
placed  to  form  a  matting.  Four  men  were  employed  to  shovel 
earth  ahead  of  the  wheelers. 

On  one  side  of  the  cut  was  a  bluff  15  ft.  high,  where  the  scrapers 
could  not  be  used.  A  gang  of  extra  laborers  with  a  foreman 
pulled  this  bank  down  with  pick  and  shovel  and  it  was  removed 
by  the  scrapers.  The  average  amount  of  earth  moved  was  23 
cu.  yd.  for  each  scraper  and  15J^  cu.  yd.  for  each  team  employed. 

The  cost  of  excavation  per  cubic  yard  of  earth  moved  is  as 
follows : 

Foreman $0 . 02 

Scrapers. 0.21 

Plowing 0.053 

Snatching 0.03 

Loaders 0.02 

Dumping 0 . 033 

Water  boy 0.001 

Total  cost  of  scraper  work $0 . 367 

Tearing  down  bank: 

Foreman $0.006 

Extra  laborers 0.066 

Total $0.072 

Total  cost  of  excavation  per  cu.  yd $0 . 439 


278    EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


The  following  table  has  been  compiled  from  the  above  data 
to  show  the  effect  of  the  lead,  soil  conditions,  etc.,  upon  the 
efficiency  of  the  work. 

TABLE  XV. — EFFECT  OF  LEAD  AND  SOIL  UPON  COST 


Case 

Lead, 
ft. 

Average 
amount 
moved  by 
scraper, 
cu.  yd. 

Average 
scraper 
cost  per 
cu.  yd. 

Average 
total  cost 
per  cu.  yd. 

Scraper  cost 
divided  by 
total  cost, 
per  cent. 

Soil 
excavated 

I 

260 

34 

$0.138 

$0.273 

50.5 

Sandy 
loam 

II 

300 

30 

0.158 

0.311 

50.8 

Clay. 

III 

400 

22 

0.216 

0.450 

48.0 

Wet  clay 

IV 

500 

2114 

0.222 

0.430 

51.6 

Fine  sand 

V 

700 

23 

0.210 

0.367 

57.2 

Red      clay, 
loam      and 
sand 

The  plow  teams  in  the  five  cases  loosened  during  each  10- 
hr,  day  the  following  average  amounts: 

Case  I,  170  cu.  yd.;  Case  II,  150  cu.  yd.;  Case  III,  115  cu. 
yd.;  Case  IV,  125  cu.  yd.;  Case  V,  164  cubic  yards. 

It  will  be  noted  that  these  amounts  are  all  about  one-half  of  what 
they  should  have  been,  considering  the  soil  and  climatic  condi- 
tions. The  dumping  cost  is  also  high  in  the  last  four  cases.  One 
man  for  each  scraper  would  have  been  sufficient.  It  is  evident 
that  under  the  conditions  existing  on  this  work,  that  far  more 
efficient  work  would  have  been  done  if  about  8  to  10  scrapers 
had  been  used  in  a  gang.  The  same  foreman,  loaders  and 
dumpers  could  have  taken  care  of  the  larger  number  of  scrapers. 

The  figures  in  the  fifth  column  of  the  above  table  do  not  in- 
clude the  expense  of  superintendence,  inspection,  repairs,  depre- 
ciation, etc.  Note  that  the  cost  of  the  scraper  work  was  about  50 
per  cent,  of  the  total  cost. 

The  most  efficient  and  economical  type  of  scraper  for  hauls  of 
from  200  to  1000  ft.  is  the  four-wheel  scraper.  For  a  haul  of 
from  200  to  400  ft.  this  type  of  scraper  is  about  100  per  cent, 
more  efficient  than  the  two-wheel  scraper  and  the  efficiency  in- 


f 

RAILROAD  CONSTRUCTION  279 

creases  with  the  length  of  haul.  See  Art.  15,  page  12.  For 
railroad  construction  in  prairie  or  slightly  rolling  country  where 
a  series  of  small  cuts  occur  with  short  hauls,  the  scraper  can  be 
used  to  advantage.  The  reader  is  referred  to  Art.  162,  page  250, 
for  a  discussion  of  proper  methods  of  scraper  operation.  Figure 
145  shows  Maney  scrapers  on  railroad  construction  in  California. 
178.  Graders. — The  use  of  the  blade  grader  in  railroad  con- 
struction is  limited  to  the  leveling  off  and  smoothing  up  of  the 
subgrade,  following  the  rough  excavation  work  of  the  scraper  or 
elevating  grader.  In  the  making  of  cuts  and  fills  the  road  grader 


FIG.  145. — Maney    scrapers    on    railroad    construction.     (Courtesy    of    Baker 

Mfg.  Co.) 


is  not  adapted  and  can  be  efficiently  used  only  in  cooperation 
with  other  forms  of  excavators. 

The  elevating  grader  has  been  successfully  used  in  railroad  con- 
struction during  the  last  30  years.  See  Chapter  IV.  Its 
field  of  use  is  in  the  construction  of  light  cuts  and  fills  in  prairie 
or  slightly  rolling  country.  See  Art.  166,  page  256.  In  nearly 
level  country,  the  grader  overcasts  the  excavated  material  from 
the  sides  to  form  the  central  embankment.  The  various  forms 
of  embankment  made  in  this  way  are  given  in  Fig.  146.  In  roll- 
ing country,  where  the  cuts  are  light,  the  grader  is  used  as  an  ex- 
cavator and  a  loader,  operating  in  conjunction  with  dump  wagons. 


280    EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


The  number  of  wagons  necessary  to  provide  for  the  efficient  opera- 
tion of  an  elevating  grader  depends  largely  upon  the  length  of 
haul.  The  following  table  gives  a  rough  estimate  of  this  service. 

TABLE  XVI. — NUMBER  OF  WAGONS  REQUIRED  TO  SERVE  ONE  ELE- 
VATING GRADER  AT  VARIOUS  LENGTHS  OF  HAUL 


Length  of 
haul, 
ft. 

Number 
of 
wagons 

Length  of 
haul, 
ft. 

Number 
of 
wagons 

Length  of 
haul, 
ft. 

Number  of 
of 
wagons 

Length  of 
haul, 
ft. 

Number  of 
of 
wagons 

100-300 

5 

600 

8 

1000 

12 

2000 

25 

400 

6 

700 

9 

1200 

15 

2500 

30 

500 

7 

900 

10 

1700 

20 

3000 

35 

R.R.  Embankments 


FIG.   146. — Types  of  railroad  embankments  built  by  elevating  grader. 

of  Austin  Mfg.  Co.) 


(Courtesy 


Figure  147  shows  an  elevating  grader  constructing  a  deep  cut 
in  Iowa. 

179.  Use  of  Elevating  Grader  in  Colorado. — The  cost  of 
moving  earth  with  elevating  graders  in  the  construction  of  em- 
bankments is  well  illustrated  by  the  following  statement  giving 
the  analysis  of  the  cost  of  construction  of  the  Stanley  Lake  Dam, 
near  Denver,  Colorado.  Elevating  graders  were  used  to  excavate 
material  from  borrow  pits  for  the  construction  of  dikes  along  the 
toe  of  both  slopes  of  the  main  embankment.  The  excavated 
material  was  moved  from  the  borrow  pit  to  the  site  of  the  dikes 
about  1000  ft.  over  nearly  level  ground,  in  IJ^-yd.  two-horse 
dump  wagons.  The  material  handled  was  largely  loam  and  clay, 
underlaid  by  a  thin  stratum  of  sand  and  gravel.  The  material 
was  laid  in  uniform  layers  until  embankments  having  a  top  width 


RAILROAD  CONSTRUCTION 


281 


of  30  ft.  and  a  height  of  30  ft.  at  the  lowest  point  of  the  valley 
were  constructed. 

The  work  was  carried  on  from  July  to  November,  1908  and  few 
delays  were  experienced  from  climatic  conditions.  No  blasting 
was  required,  but  a  plow  was  occasionally  used  to  loosen  the  soil. 

The  excavating  outfit  consisted  of  three  elevating  graders, 
except  during  November  when  only  two  machines  were  used. 
One  grader  was  hauled  by  a  traction  engine,  one  by  12  horses  and 
the  other  by  12  mules.  The  traction  engine  did  not  operate 
efficiently  due  to  bad  water  for  the  boiler  and  slippery  ground 


Fio.   147. — Elevating  grader  on  railroad  construction. 

for  traction  during  part  of  the  working  period.  In  computing 
the  labor  cost,  the  wages  paid  were  increased  50  cents  per  day 
per  man  for  board,  including  Sundays.  Feed  for  the  horses  and 
mules  was  estimated  at  82  cents  per  head  per  day,  including  Sun- 
days. The  regular  working  day  was  10  hours. 

The  regular  force  account  as  distributed  over  the  entire  job 
was  as  follows: 

Cost  per  day 

One  walking  boss  @  $125.00  per  month,  plus  board..  $5.31 

One  foreman  @  $100.00,  plus  board 4.34 

One  foreman  @  $75.00,  plus  board 3.38 

One  timekeeper  @  $75 . 00,  plus  board 3 . 38 

One  blacksmith  @  $60.00,  plus  board 2.81 

One  blacksmith's  helper  @  $1 . 75  per  day 1 . 75 

Two  corral  men  at  $45.00  per  man 4.46 

One  water  boy  at  $1 . 75  per  day 1 . 75 

Total  per  day  of  10  hours $27. 18 


282    EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

The  actual  average  working  time  per  hour  was  about  45  min. 
for  the  graders.  For  a  lead  of  500  ft.  the  greatest  efficiency 
was  secured  by  the  use  of  7  dump  wagons  to  each  grader.  For 
each  100  ft.  increase  in  lead,  one  extra  wagon  load  was  about 
1J4  cu.  yd.,  place  measurement. 

The  average  cost  of  operating  a  grader  with  the  12-horse 
team  was  $21.34  per  10-hr,  day,  and  with  a  traction  engine  was 
$26.11.  During  August,  1908,  the  average  cost  of  excavation 
with  the  use  of  the  traction  engine  was  13.3  cents  per  cubic  yard, 
the  average  haul  962  ft.  and  the  wagon-hours  per  cubic  yard 
about  0.598.  For  the  horse-drawn  graders,  the  average  cost  per 
cubic  yard  was  13.5  cents,  the  average  haul  965  ft.,  and  the 
average  wagon-hours  per  cubic  yard  about  0.6. 

180.  Use  of  Elevating  Grader  in  New  York.1— The  use  of  an 
elevating  grader  in  the  excavation  of  a  railroad  cut  is  rather  un- 
usual and  the  following  statement  is  valuable  on  account  of  its 
completeness  and  accuracy. 

During  the  latter  part  of  1911  and  1912,  an  Austin  elevating 
grader  hauled  by  a  20-ton  steam  tractor  was  used  in  the  excava- 
tion of  20,000  cu.  yd.  (place  measurement)  from  a  series  of.  cuts 
for  the  construction  of  the  Halite  and  Northern  R.R.,  Livingston 
Co.,  N.  Y. 

The  grader  was  supplemented  with  a  light  grading  equipment, 
consisting  of  Fresno,  drag  and  wheel  scrapers,  which  were  used  in 
places  inaccessible  to  the  grader.  The  transportation  of  material 
was  done  in  Ij^-yd.  bottom-dump  wagons,  hauled  by  three- 
mule  teams. 

The  material  was  a  stiff  clay,  hard  and  brittle  when  dry,  but 
plastic,  slippery  and  rather  unworkable  when  wet.  Considerable 
time  was  lost  during  the  winter  of  1911  on  account  of  unfavorable 
climatic  conditions. 

The  method  of  excavation  had  to  be  adpated  to  conditions, 
which  required  a  cross-section  with  a  bottom  width  of  20  ft. 
and  side  slopes  of  1%  to  1.  For  a  depth  of  3  ft.,  the  wagons 
were  able  to  load  alongside  the  grader  by  " straddling"  the  top 
edge  of  the  slopes.  Below  this  depth,  the  grader  had  to  excavate 
a  base  of  30  ft.  width  to  an  elevation  5  in.  above  subgrade.  Ma- 
terial was  borrowed  from  shallow  trenches  in  addition  to  the  5 
in.  depth  of  base  to  replace  the  triangular-shaped  sections  exca- 

1  Abstracted  from  Engineering  News,  September  10,  1914. 


RAILROAD  CONSTRUCTION  283 

vated  from  the  lower  sections  of  the  side  slopes.  Even  a  30 
ft.  width  cut  did  not  provide  sufficient  space  for  loading  all  the 
material  directly  into  the  wagons.  In  excavating  the  material 
along  the  middle  third  of  the  section,  the  material  was  first 
deposited  from  the  belt  conveyor  along  the  slopes  where  it  could 
be  raked  down  and  again  raised  by  the  grader  for  deposition  in 
the  wagons.  This  rehandling  of  material  involved  considerable 
loss  of  time  and  motion. 

The  elevating  grader  worked  119  days  or  allowing  for  loss  of 
time  due  to  wet  soil  conditions,  76  actual  working  days.  About 
20,000  cu.  yd.  or  a  daily  average  of  about  260  cu.  yd.  of  earth  was 
excavated.  This  is  about  one-half  of  the  output  which  might  be 
expected  from  the  machine,  working  in  an  unrestricted  area. 

The  following  is  a  statement  of  the  cost  of  operation  per  work- 
ing day  of  10  hours: 

Labor: 

1  foreman $6 . 00 

1  tractor  engineer 4 . 00 

1  tractor  steersman 2 . 00 

1  grader  operator 3 . 00 

1  tank-wagon  driver 2 . 00 

1  extra  tank-wagon  driver 5 . 50 

4  dump  wagon  drivers  @  $2 . 00 12 . 00 

2  dump  men  @,  $2.25 4.50 

1  blacksmith 3.00 

1  barnman  @  $40 . 00  per  month 2 . 00 

1  cook  @  $40.00  per  month 2.00 


Total .   $46.00 

Fuel: 

Fuel,  oil,  etc $5.00 

Miscellaneous : 

Corral  expenses  for  25  animals $20 . 00 

Insurance,   interest,  depreciation,  etc.   @  12% 

per  cent 9 . 00 


Total $29.00 

Total  daily  cost $80.00 

Average  daily  excavation 260  cu.  -yd. 

Average  unit  cost,  $80.00  -J-  260  =  $0.307    per  cu.  yd. 


284     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

181.  Power  Shovels. — The  steam  shovel  has  been  in  use  on 
railroad  construction  during  the  past  50  years  and  is  doubt- 
less the  best  known  and  most  generally  used  type  of  excavator  on 
this  class  of  work.  The  earlier  forms  of  shovel  were  of  the 
fixed-platform  class  and  operated  on  railroad  trucks.  Later  the 
same  class  of  shovel  was  mounted  on  broad-tired  wheels  for  trans- 
portation over  roads.  Since  1900,  the  revolving  shovel  has  come 
into  general  use  and  is  especially  adapted  for  light  work,  shallow 
cuts  and  where  the  cuts  are  scattered. 

With  the  recent  development  of  the  electric  railroad  and 
cheap  electric  power,  the  electrically  operated  shovel  has  come 
into  use.  Electric  power  has  definite  advantages  over  steam  as  to 
simplicity  and  ease  of  operation,  cleanliness,  etc.,  and  where  the 
power  is  available  at  a  low  unit  cost,  it  is  the  most  satisfactory 
and  economical  form  of  power,  especially  in  the  operation  of 
the  lighter  shovels  of  the  fixed-platform  class  and  of  the  re- 
volving class.  See  Chapter  VI. 

The  following  statement  is  abstracted  from  the  Handbook  of 
Steam  Shovel  Work  published  by  the  Bucyrus  Company,  South 
Milwaukee,  Wisconsin,  1911,  and  gives  an  analysis  of  the  cost  of 
steam-shovel  work.  This  Handbook  quoted  contains  the  record 
of  time  studies  and  reports  made  on  the  operation  of  45 
steam  shovels  operating  under  various  conditions  of  material, 
management,  depth  and  magnitude  of  excavation,  disposal  of 
material,  etc. 

The  following  formula  gives  the  cost  of  shovel  operation,  in 
cents  per  cubic  yard  on  cars  (place  measurement). 

R.*g,  f         L          J\ 

M    \         c      nc      LA/ 

d  =  time  in  minutes  to  load  1  cu.  ft.  (place  measurement). 

c  —  capacity  of  one  car  in  cu.  ft.  (place  measurement). 

/  =  time  shovel  is  interrupted  in  spotting  one  car. 

e  =  time  shovel  is  interrupted  to  change  trains. 

g  =  time  required  to  move  shovel. 
L  =  distance  of  one  shovel  move  in  feet. 
M  =  minutes  per  working  day  less  loss  for  accidental  delays. 
A  =  area  of  excavated  section  in  square  feet. 
R  =  cost  per  cubic  yard  on  cars,  in  cents  (place  measurement) . 

n  =  number  of  cars  in  train. 

C  =  shovel  expense  in  cents  per  working  day,  not  including 
the  overhead  and  superintendence  charges. 


I 

RAILROAD  CONSTRUCTION  285 

Graphic  charts  may  be  prepared  by  assuming  values  of  "C" 
and  "  A  "  and  by  taking  the  following  average  or  estimated  values 
for  the  other  quantities,  except  "M"  and  "d."  From  these 
curves,  the  relation  between  "R"  and  "d"  for  various  values 
of  "M".  may  be  obtained. 

To  determine  "C"  the  following  estimate  is  made  for  a  shovel 
valued  at  $14,000. 

Per  year 

Depreciation,  4£a  per  cent $653.34 

Interest  @  6  per  cent 840 . 00 

Repairs,  when  working  one  shift 2000 . 00 


Total $3493.34 

Per  day 

Per  year  of  150  working  days $23 . 29 

Shovel  runner 5 . 00 

Cranesman 3 . 60 

Fireman 2 . 40 

Half-time  of  watchman  @  $50  per  month 1 . 00 

6  pit  men  @  $1.50 9.00 

1  team  hauling  coal,  etc.  @  $5.00 2 . 50 

2^  tons  coal  @  $3.50 8.75 

Oil,  waste,  etc 1 . 50 

Cost  per  day  or  ~ '. $57.04 

The  depreciation  is  estimated  by  assuming  the  difference 
between  the  initial  cost  at  $150.00  a  ton  and  the  scrap  value 
at  $10.00  per  ton  as  distributed  over  a  working  life  period  of  20 
years. 

The  interest  is  assumed  at  the  uniform  rate  of  6  per  cent. 

The  cost  of  repairs  is  based  largely  on  the  character  of  the  work 
and  has  relatively  little  bearing  on  the  age  of  the  shovel.  Thus 
the  amount  of  repairs  will  be  more  for  rock  than  for  earth  ex- 
cavation and  be  greater  for  badly  broken  rock  than  for  well- 
blasted  material. 

The  assumption  of  150  working  days  a  year  is  based  on  the 
allowance  for  climatic  conditions,  transportation  of  plant,  re- 
pairs, etc.  Local  conditions  will  modify  this  value  considerably. 

The  average  shovel  move  was  taken  as  6  feet.  The  values  of 
"LA"  were  assumed  as  1500,  3000  and  6000  cubic  feet.  The 


286     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

values  of  "L"  and  the  width  of  cut  are  determined  by  the 
limitations  of  each  shovel.  The  maximum  and  minimum  limits 
of  depth  of  cut  are  dependent  on  the  material  and  its  physical 
condition.  Great  depths  are  apt  to  incur  slides  while  slight 
depths  will  greatly  increase  the  cost  of  filling  the  dipper. 

The  time  "d,  "required  to  load  1  cu.  ft.  will  depend  on  the  charac- 
ter of  the  material,  the  depth  of  cut,  the  size  of  the  machine 
and  the  capacity  of  its  dipper,  the  efficiency  of  operation  of  the 
shovel,  etc. 

The  results  of  the  tests  give  the  average  time  to  load  1  cu. 
yd.,  place  measurement,  as  10.5  sec.  for  iron  ore,  12.1  sec.  for  sand, 
18.34  sec.  for  clay,  18.4  sec.  for  earth  and  30.7  sec.  for  rock.  The 
average  dipper  capacities,  place  measurement,  were  2^  cu.  yd. 
for  iron  ore,  lj£  cu-  yd-  f°r  sand  and  earth,  1%  cu.  yd.  for  clay 
and  1  cu.  yd.  for  rock. 

The  value  of  "/,"  time  for  spotting  cars,  may  be  taken  as  zero, 
as  is  generally  the  case  when  the  train  is  alongside  the  shovel, 
and  the  moving  up  of  cars  is  done  during  the  swinging  of  the 
dipper. 

The  value  of  "e,"  time  between  trains,  was  found  to  average 
4  minutes. 

The  capacity  of  one  car  in  cubic  feet  (place  measurement),  "c, " 
was  assumed  as  67.5  cu.  ft.,  based  on  a  contractor's  side  dump 
car  of  a  capacity  of  4  cu.  yd.  (water  measurement),  or  2.5  cu.  yd. 
(place  measurement). 

The  average  number  of  cars  per  train,  "n, "  was  10. 

The  average  time  required  to  move  the  shovel,  "</,"  was  about 
8  minutes.  The  various  steps  in  moving  a  shovel  should  be 
systematized  so  as  to  secure  efficiency  and  eliminate  lost  time. 
A  very  good  discussion  of  the  subject  is  given  on  pages  364  and 
365  of  the  Handbook. 

The  actual  working  time  of  the  shovel,  "M,"  was  determined 
by  allowing  for  accidental  delays,  the  following  average  amounts  : 
7.25  per  cent,  for  brick  clay,  8.4  per  cent,  for  sand  and^  gravel, 
8.6  per  cent,  for  iron  ore,  17.15  per  cent,  for  clay  and  loam,  17.75 
per  cent,  for  crushed  stone  from  quarries,  and  19.87  per  cent,  for 
rock  cuts.  The  maximum  values  are  about  20  per  cent,  for  sand, 
gravel,  iron  ore,  and  glacial  drift,  28  per  cent,  for  crushed  stone 
from  quarries,  40  per  cent,  for  clay  and  loam  and  56  per  cent,  for 
rock  cuts. 


RAILROAD  CONSTRUCTION 


287 


Delays  may  be  due  to  the  character  and  condition  of  the 
material  to  be  handled,  to  breakdowns  of  the  shovel  or  transporta- 
tion equipment  and  to  accidents.  Wet  sticky  clay  or  gumbo  soil 
necessitates  further  breaking  up  by  "mud  capping,"  block  hol- 
ing or  some  other  suitable  method.  The  following  observances 
will  reduce  accidental  delays  to  a  minimum. 

1.  Proper  spacing  and  charging  of  drill  holes. 

2.  Smooth  and  efficient  operation  of  shovel  and  transportation 
equipment. 

3.  Regular  daily  inspection  of  shovel  and  transportation  equip- 
ment. 

4.  Reserve  supply  of  duplicate  parts  for  shovel  and  transporta- 
tion equipment. 

5.  Efficient  supervision  of  work. 

The  average  values  stated  above  are  used  to  develop  so-called 
standard  cost  curves  which  may  be  used  for  estimating  the  cost  of 
proposed  work  and  checking  up  the  cost  of  work  in  progress. 

The  principal  benefit  to  be  derived  from  a  study  of  the  data 
obtained  from  the  actual  use  of  this  formula  is  the  determination 
of  the  factors  producing  inefficient  operation.  From  an  inspec- 
tion of  the  formula, 


it  will  be  seen  that  the  cost,  R,  is  directly  proportioned  to  the 
factors,  d,  /,  e  and  g,  and  hence  it  is  important  on  any  job  to  re- 
duce these  to  a  minimum.  This  desideratum  can  be  affected  by 
the  use  of  a  suitable  plan  of  operations,  proper  equipment,  effi- 
cient operation  and  careful  supervision. 

The  following  table  gives  a  statement  of  the  cost  of  shovel 
work,  R  for  the  45  cases  considered. 

TABLE    XVII.— COST    OF    SHOVEL    WORK 


Material 

Cost  in  cents  per  cubic  yard 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Average 

Iron  ore  

2.2 
3.2 
3.6 
3.8 
12.7 

0.8 
0.5 
1.1 
1.8 
1.5  . 

1.60 

1.85 
2.20 
2.60 
4.70 

Sand  and  gravel 

Clay  

Earth  and  glacial  drift 

Rock  

288    EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

In  making  a  cut  for  a  railroad,  the  shovel  makes  a  through  cut 
working  along  one  side  and  dumping  into  wagons  or  cars  on  a 
higher  level.  A  typical  arrangement  would  be  as  shown  in  Fig. 


Train  of  Dump  Cars 


'To  Dump 


Shovel    |    / 


Switch 


FIG.  148. — Diagram  of  shovel  operation. 


FIG.  149. — Diagram  of  shovel  operation. 


FIG.  150. — Diagram  showing  method  of  making  cut. 

148.  In  a  wide  cut,  where  the  shovel  is  cutting  on  both  sides, 
loading  tracks  can  be  provided  on  both  sides  of  the  shovel  track 
and  one  car  can  be  " spotted"  on  one  track,  while  the  shovel  is 
loading  a  car  on  the  opposite  side.  See  Fig.  149,  The  procedure 


t 

RAILROAD  CONSTRUCTION  289 

in  making  a  deep  through  cut  is  to  start  excavation  just  inside 
the  side  slope  stakes  along  one  side,  undercutting  the  side  slope 
slightly.  The  return  cut  is  taken  next  to  the  first  cut  and  the 
process  continued  until  the  other  side  of  the  section  is  reached. 
For  each  new  cut  the  loading  track  is  moved  into  the  preceding 
shovel  cut.  See  Fig.  150. 

182.  Use  of  Steam  Shovel  near  Newcomb,  Montana.1 — The 
extension  of  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  Railway  to 
Seattle  on  the  Pacific  Coast  was  made  in  many  places  by  the 
construction  of  large  trestles  across  valleys.  These  trestles 
were  later  filled  in  and  a  permanent  embankment  made.  The 
Basin  Creek  bridge  required  162,000  cu.  yd.  of  material,  which 
was  excavated  by  a  steam  shovel  in  the  Newcomb  pit  and  hauled 
in  dump-car  trains  to  the  site  of  the  fill. 

The  following  tabulated  statement  gives  a  detailed  account  of 
this  work  for  the  month  of  March,  1909. 

Shovel — Bucyrus  No.  453,  2^-yd.  dipper,  weight  of  machine  65  tons. 
Engines — Prairie  type,  three  in  use,  tractive  power,  33,000  pounds. 
Cars — Western  dump,  average  load  12.6  cubic  yards. 
Trains — One  engine  hauling  13  cars,  and  a  caboose. 
Yardage — 68,000  cu.  yd.  handled  in  27  working  days  of  10  hr.  each. 
Yard  miles— 308,780. 

Average  haul — 4.54  miles.  Rate  of  ascending  grade  against  loads,  88 
ft.  per  mile. 

Total  Cost,  Labor: 

Steam  shovel  pay-roll $1815 . 64 

Section  labor..  99.94 


Total $1915.58 

Work  Train  Service,  Labor: 

Conductors,  95.8  @  $3.68 $352.54 

Brakemen,  191.6  @  $2.53 484.75 

Engineers,  95.8  @  $4.40 421.52 

Firemen,  95.8  @  $2.95 282.61 


Total  labor $1541.42 

Fuel  and  Supplies: 

Supplies,  95.8  days  @  $0.32 $30.66 

768  tons  of  coal  @  $4.00 3072.00 

1,916,000  gal.  of  water 178.83 


Total  cost  of  fuel  and  supplies $3281 . 49 

Abstracted  from  the  Railway  and  Engineering  Review,  July  10,  1909. 

19 


290    EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

General: 

Depreciation,  81  days  @  $2 . 03 $164 . 43 

Interest,  81  days  @  $2.03 164.43 

Repairs,  81  days  @  $3.00 243 . 00 

Total  general  cost $571 . 86 


Total  cost  of  work  train  service $5394 . 77 

Fuel  for  Steam  Shovel: 

172.8  tons  of  coal  @  $4.00 , $691.20 

Camp  Maintenance: 

Boarding  camp $174 . 27 

Commissary 15.74 


Total..., $190.01 


Total  cost  of  work  for  March,  1909 $8191 . 56 

Excavation 68,000  cu.  yd. 

Cost  of  excavation  $8191.56  -i- 68,000  =  $0.1205   per   cu.   yd. 

183.  Use  of  Steam  Shovel  in  Illinois.1— The  Burlington  System 
of  railroads  in  1906  made  two  improvements  in  location  on  the 
Beardstown-Centralia  Division  in  Illinois.  They  are  known  as 
the  Big  Shoal  cut-off  and  the  Little  Shoal  cut-off. 

The  Big  Shoal  cut-off  was  a  change  in  alinement  and  grade  be- 
tween Sorento  and  Reno,  Illinois.  The  total  amount  of  excava- 
tion in  the  improvement  was  318,711  cu.  yd.,  of  which  251,711 
cu.  yd.  were  steam-shovel  work.  Two  temporary  trestles  were 
used,  having  a  total  length  of  2961  ft.  and  an  average  height  of 
40  feet.  The  average  haul  for  the  embankment  was  1^  miles  and 
the  average  depth  of  cut  15  feet.  The  material  handled  was  a 
wet  clay.  The  stickiness  of  the  excavated  material  made  its 
handling  difficult  and  delayed  the  work  to  some  extent.  The 
trestle  was  designed  to  carry  a  loaded  train  of  5-yd.  dump  cars 
before  being  filled  and  the  engine  in  service  after  being  filled. 
Each  bent  consisted  of  two  soft  wood  piles  with  cap  and  cross- 
bracing.  For  each  13-ft.  span,  two  8  X  16-in.  stringers  were 
used.  The  stringers  were  removed  and  the  remainder  of  the 
trestle  left  in  the  embankment. 

1  Abstracted  from  Bulletin  No.  81,  American  Railway  and  Maintenance 
of  Way  Association. 


RAILROAD  CONSTRUCTION 


291 


The  Little  Shoal  cut-off  was  a  change  in  alinement  and  grades 
between  Ayers  and  Durley,  Illinois.  This  work  comprised  the 
handling  of  188,240  cu.  yd.  of  material.  This  was  about  40 
per  cent,  hard-pan,  which  was  as  hard  as  the  shovel  could  dig 
without  blasting.  A  temporary  trestle  was  used,  having  a  total 
length  of  2142  ft.  and  an  average  height  of  35  feet.  The  average 
haul  was  J^  mile.  On  the  work  the  shovel  and  trains  moved 
over  6  per  cent,  grades  and  16-degree  curves  without  difficulty. 

The  work  was  all  done  by  the  railroad  company  and  the  table 
below  shows  the  saving  made  over  contract  work.  This  was  done 
in  spite  of  the  disadvantages  under  which  the  company  worked, 
such  as  working  under  the  regular  schedules  and  the  lack  of 
freedom  in  the  handling  of  labor,  supplies  and  commissary. 

The  equipment  consisted  of  a  65-ton  Bucyrus  steam  shovel,  two 
30-ton  switch  engines,  43  dump  cars  of  5  cu.  yd.  capacity  and  a 
Jordan  spreader.  The  shovel  worked  228  shifts  of  10  hr.  each, 
two  per  day.  The  average  output  was  1104  cu.  yd.  per  shift 
or  3.35  cu.  yd.  per  car.  The  labor  employed  incuded  70  men  dur- 
ing the  day  shift  and  28  during  the  night  shift. 

The  following  table  gives  a  re'sume'  of  the  cost  of  the  work  and 
the  comparative  cost  by  contract. 

TABLE  XVIII. — COMPARATIVE  COST  OF  COMPANY  AND  CONTRACT  WORK 


Character  of  work 

Big  Shoal  cut-off 

Little  Shoal  cut-off 

Total 

Per  cubic 
yard,  cents 

Total 

Per  cubic 
yard,  cents 

Equipment       

$2,733 

23,351 
9,008 
12,438 
610 
$48,140 

1.0 

8.9 
3.6 
5.0 
0.2 

18.7 

$2,911 

18,136 
5,853 

7,817 
487 
$35,204 

1.5 

9.6 
3.1 
4.2 
0.3 

18.7 

Steam     shovel     (labor     and 
supplies)   

Temporary  trestle        

Track-work 

Engineering  and  supervision  .  . 
Total 

Total  by  contract,  at  26  cents 
per  cubic  yard 

$65,445 
17,305 

26.0 
7.3 

$48,942 
13,738 

26.0 
7.3 

Saving  by  company  work  .... 

184.  Drag-line  Excavators. — Drag-line  or  scraper-bucket  ex- 
cavators have  been  in  general  use  during  the  last  15  years.  A 
decade  ago  this  type  of  machine  was  largely  used  in  canal  ex- 


292     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

cavation  but  recently  it  has  been  successfully  adapted  to  other 
forms  of  earthwork  and  notably  railroad  construction.  The 
revolving  upper  platform  containing  the  operating  and  excavating 
equipments,  and  the  long  boom  with  a  drag  bucket  provide  for  a 
wide  latitude  of  operation  which  is  impossible  with  the  power 
shovel.  See  Chapter  VII. 

In  building  fills,  the  drag-line  excavator  has  the  following 
definite  advantages: 

(a)  The  excavation  and  deposition  of  material  at  any  point 
within  a  complete  circle  of  operation. 

(6)  The  operation  of  the  machine  while  located  on  the  ground 
surface  so  that  it  will  not  be  affected  by  low,  wet,  soil  conditions. 

(c)  The  long  boom  and  drag-line  bucket  provide  for  the  re- 
moval of  material  from  wide,  shallow  borrow  pits  and  its  use  in 
the  construction  of  high  and  wide  fills.  The  radius  of  action  is  about 
twice  the  length  of  the  boom  of  the  machine. 

In  the  excavation  of  cuts,  the  excavator  has  about  the  same 
advantages  as  stated  above.  The  machine  moves  over  the 
ground  surface  and  backs  away  from  the  excavation.  The  ex- 
cavated material  is  deposited  in  spoil  banks  away  from  the  cut 
or  in  wagons  or  cars  for  transportation  to  place  of  adjacent  fill. 

The  complete  control  which  the  operator  has  over  the  action  of 
the  bucket  enables  him  to  secure  smooth  and  uniform  side 
slopes  in  the  excavation  of  cuts. 

The  drag-line  excavator  can  be  used  for  driving  and  pulling 
piles  in  [the  construction  of  trestles  in  crossing  marshes,  bogs, 
etc.  The  recent  use  of  caterpillar  tractors  enables  even  the  larg- 
est machines  to  move  over  soft  soils  that  will  not  support  a  team. 
The  machine  can  easily  and  quickly  be  adapted  to  the  work  of  a 
derrick  or  crane,  and  thus  can  handle  its  own  track  in  short 
sections. 

The  larger  machines  can  efficiently  excavate  loose  rock  and 
hard-pan,  and  can  handle  large  masses  of  blasted  rock. 

185.  Use  of  Drag-line  Excavator  in  South  Dakota. — Two  drag- 
line excavators  were  employed  during  the  summer  of  1912  in  the 
construction  of  fills  for  the  Puget  Sound  extension  of  the  Chicago, 
Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  Railway  near  Andover,  South  Dakota. 
The  machines  were  Bucyrus  Class  20  equipped  with  an  85-ft. 
boom  and  a  2j^-yd.  bucket  and  Bucyrus  Class  24  with  a  100- 
ft.  boom  and  a  3^-yd.  bucket.  Figure  151  shows  the  Class  20 
machine  at  work. 


RAILROAD  CONSTRUCTION  293 

The  material  excavated  was  largely  black  loam  and  hard  glacial 
clay,  although  blue  shale  rock  was  encountered  occasionally. 
The  material  was  borrowed  from  shallow  pits  along  the  right  of 
way  and  dumped  directly  into  the  fill.  The  Class  20  machine 
commenced  work  on  May  16,  1912  and  the  Class  24  machine 
on  May  29,  1912.  The  total  excavation  was  11,700  cu.  yd. 
for  May;  98,900  cu.  yd.  for  June;  156,400  cu.  yd.  for  July  and 
151,000  cu.  yd.  for  August. 

The  embankments  were  leveled  off  with  a  team  and  Marmon 
scraper.  The  final  leveling  was  done  by  dragging  a  90-lb.  rail 
over  the  surface.  The  shoulders  were  trimmed  by  hand  labor.. 


Fio.  151. — Drag-line   excavator   on   railroad    construction.     (Courtesy   of   The 
Excavating  Engineer.) 


186.  Use  of  Drag-line  Excavator  in  Ohio. — A  Class  14  Bucyrus 
drag-line  excavator  was  used  in  the  construction  of  a  difficult 
railroad  cut  for  the  Lorain,  Ashland  and  Southern  Railroad, 
near  Wellington,  Ohio. 

The  excavator  was  operated  by  steam,  and  was  equipped  with  a 
60-ft.  steel  latticed  boom  and  a  2-yd.  bucket. 

The  cut  was  on  a  curve,  2800  ft.  in  length  and  varied  in  depth 
from  7  ft.  to  20  feet.  The  material  was  largely  a  glacial  clay  with 
hard-pan  in  the  lower  section  of  the  cut.  Figure  152  clearly 
shows  the  nature  of  the  work  done  by  the  machine. 

187.  Railway  Ditching  Trains. — One  of  the  more  important 
features  of  railroad  maintenance  of  way  work  is  the  maintenance 
of  side  ditches  and  cuts.     The  time-honored  custom  for  the  repair 


294     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

of  cuts  and  the  cleaning  of  side  or  roadway  ditches  is  by  hand 
labor,  with  the  regular  section  gang.  However,  railroad  officials 
are  coming  to  realize  that  the  traditional  methods  are  slow,  labo- 


FIG.  152. — Railroad  cut  made  by  drag-line  excavator. 

cavating  Engineer.) 


(Courtesy  of  The  Ex- 


Fio.  153. — Railway    ditcher    and    train.      (Courtesy    of   Marion    Steam    Shovel 

Co.) 

rious  and  uneconomical  and  are  adapting  machinery  to  replace 
hand  labor.  This  change  has  become  imperative  in  very  recent 
years  on  account  of  the  scarcity  and  high  cost  of  labor. 


RAILROAD  CONSTRUCTION 


295 


The  two  classes  of  machinery  in  present  use  for  the  widening 
of  cuts  and  cleaning  of  side  ditches  are: 

1.  A  power  ditcher  with  a  train  of  flat  cars  and  an  unloader 
plow. 

2.  A  power  ditcher  and  a  train  composed  of  air-operated  dump 
cars. 


RAILROAD  DITCHING 

COSTS  AND  QUANTITIES 

AMERICAN   RAILROAD    DITCHER 


$.45 


.40 


CONDITIONS 
Train:-  Four  cars  one 
flat  two  dumps  one  water 
car,  capacity  40  yards. 
Speed  20  mi.  an  hour. 
Switch  2  mi.  to  run. 


DAILY  COST 

Operator  @  $1.25  $4.80 

Firemen  1.50 

Interest  on  Train  &  Ditcher  2.07 

Depreciation  2.39 

Oil,  Waste,  etc.  .50 

Coal  2.50 
Locomotive  Charges  Coal,  etc.  15.00 

Train  Crew  25.00 

Total  ;-.:',.:> 


Excavating  Capacity 
Sixty  Yds.  per  Hour 


_ 
Cu.  Yds.  per  Day  _ 


.10 


FIG.  154.- 


678 
Actual  Working  Hours 

•Diagram    showing    excavating    cost    with    single    railroad    ditcher. 
(Courtesy  of  American  Hoist  &  Derrick  Co.) 


The  first  class  of  ditcher  consists  of  a  locomotive  crane  or  a 
small  revolving  steam  shovel  mounted  on  a  flat  car  near  the  cen- 
ter of  a  long  train  of  flat  cars.  An  unloading  plow  is  placed  near 
one  end  of  the  train  and  is  operated  by  means  of  a  cable  attached 
to  the  drum  of  a  hoisting  engine.  Figure  153  clearly  illustrates 
the  method  of  operation  of  such  a  train.  The  crane  or  shovel  may 
be  fixed  on  a  car  and  the  cars  of  the  train  shifted  as  they  are  loaded, 


296     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


or  the  ditcher  may  be  mounted  on  rollers  which  move  along  a  sec- 
tion of  rails  loading  each  car  in  turn  as  it  comes  to  it. 

The  second  class  of  ditcher  consists  of  a  specially  designed 
revolving  steam  shovel  which  is  usually  mounted  on  a  flat  car 
placed  between  two  air-operated  dump  cars.  The  complete 
train  consists  of  a  locomotive,  two  20-yd.  dump  cars,  a  ditcher,  a 
spreader  car,  a  caboose  and  usually  a  water  tank  car.  The  shovel 

RAILROAD  DITCHING 
COSTS  AND   QUANTITIES 


$.30    1200 
1100 

.25     1000 
900 

1  .20       800 
X        | 
|        $700 

^ .15  2  600 

&     3 

|  500 

.10      400 


.05 


300 
200 
100 


DAILY  COST 

Two  Operators  @  $1.25  $9.60 

Two  Firemen  3.00 

Interest  on  Cars  &  Ditchers    4.14 


Depreciation 

Oil,  Waste,  etc. 

Coal 

Locomotive,  Coal,  etc. 

Train  Crew 

Repairs 

Labor  @  $150  per  Day 


4.78 

1.00 

5.00 

15.00 

25.00 

2.00 

6.00 

$75.52 


CONDITIONS 

Train;-  Four  air  dump  cars, 
80  cu.  yd.  capacity,  two  flat  cars, 
one  water  car.  Speed  -  20  miles 
per  hour.  Switch  -  2  miles  to  run. 

Note:-  If  cars  which  may  be 
dumped  in  motion  are  used,  ma- 
terial will  be  thrown  off  the  bal- 
last. 


678 
Actual  Working  Hours 


10 


11 


FIG.  155. — Diagram   showing   excavating   cost   with   double   railroad   ditcher. 
(Courtesy  of  American  Hoist  &  Derrick  Co.) 

or  ditcher  is  connected  to  the  tank  car  so  that  water  may  be 
pumped  during  its  operation. 

The  manufacturers1  of  the  American  Railroad  Ditcher  have  pre- 
pared diagrams  to  show  the  capacity  and  cost  of  operating  single 
and  double  ditching  trains.  The  double  train  consists  of  a 
locomotive,  four  20-yd.  dump  cars,  two  ditchers  and  flat  cars,  a 
spreader  car,  a  caboose  and  usually  a  water  car. 

1  American  Hoist  and  Derrick  Co.,  St.  Paul,  Minn. 


RAILROAD  CONSTRUCTION  297 

Figure  154  shows  the  cost  and  performance  of  a  single  ditcher 
train.  The  curves  are  based  on  a  daily  expense  of  $53.76,  and  for 
the  excavation  of  ditches  2  to  3  ft.  in  depth.  The  excavating 
capacity  is  60  yd.  per  hour;  speed  of  train  is  20  miles  per  hour 
working  and  distance  to  switch  of  2  miles.  Assuming  5  hr. 
time,  the  train  can  remove  and  dump  about  240  cu.  yd.  at  a  cost 
of  about  17  cents  per  cubic  yard. 

Figure  155  gives  the  performance  and  cost  of  operation  of  a 
double  ditcher  train.  The  curves  are  based  on  a  daily  expense  of 
$75.52,  and  for  the  excavation  of  ditches  2  to  3  ft.  in  depth. 
The  excavating  capacity  of  each  ditcher  is  60  cu.  yd.  per  hour; 
speed  of  train  20  miles  per  hour  and  length  of  haul  to  switch  of 


FIG.   156. — Double    ditcher    railway   train.     (Courtesy    of  American    Hoist    & 

Derrick  Co.) 


2  miles.  With  a  working  time  of  5  hr.,  the  double  train  can 
excavate  and  dispose  of  460  cu.  yd.  at  a  cost  of  12  cents 
per  cubic  yard.  Figure.  156  shows  a  double  ditcher  train  in 
operation. 

During  the  Spring  of  1911,  a  double  train  ditcher  was  used 
near  Thebes,  Illinois  in  the  cleaning  out  and  widening  of  a  rail- 
road cut.  The  material  was  clay  with  about  75  per  cent,  of 
boulders  and  24,000  cu.yd.  of  material  was  handled  in  1000  days 
of  11  to  12  hr.  at  an  operating  cost  of  $15.00.  The  operating 
expense  per  day  was  as  follows: 


Engineer , $5 .00 

Fireman 2.50 

Watchman 1 . 60 

3  laborers  @  $1.75 5.25 

Total..                                                                    .  $14.36 


298    EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

188.  Special  Ditching  Machine. — Several  forms  of  ditching 
and  grading  machines  have  recently  been  devised  for  the  main- 
tenance of  the  roadbed  of  a  railroad.  These  excavators  are  gen- 
erally rather  complicated,  elaborate,  and  involve  a  high  initial 
expense. 

One  of  the  best  known  of  these  graders  is  the  Bowman  ditcher 
and  grader,  which  has  been  used  successfully  for  clearing  roadbed 
ditches,  widening  fills  and  trimming  the  slopes  of  cuts.  An  in- 
spection of  Fig.  157  shows  the  general  form  and  construction  of 
the  machine.  Two  steel  gallows-frames  are  mounted  on  a  50-ft. 
steel  flat-car.  At  each  side  of  the  gallows-frames  is  mounted  a 


FIG.   157. — Bowman  ditcher  on  railroad  maintenance. 


jib  crane  carrying  a  4-yd.  steel  scraper  bucket  which  is  operated 
by  two  vertical  air  cylinders,  the  larger,  24  X  60  in.,  operates 
the  hoisting  chain  and  the  smaller,  12  X  60  in.,  operates  the  dump- 
ing chain  attached  to  the  rear  of  the  bucket. 

On  the  forward  section  of  the  car  is  placed  the  air  plant  con- 
sisting of  several  large  air  reservoirs  and  three  brake  pumps 
which  are  operated  by  steam  from  the  locomotive. 

The  method  of  excavation  consists  in  lowering  the  two  front 
buckets  which  are  filled  by  the  forward  motion  of  the  car.  When 
these  buckets  are  filled  they  are  raised,  and  the  rear  buckets  are 
lowered  and  filled.  The  car  is  then  hauled  to  the  fill  or  dump 
where  the  buckets  are  dumped  and  returned  for  another  load. 

A  scraper  blade  is  attached  to  each  side  near  the  rear  end  of 
the  car  (see  Fig.  157),  and  is  used  for  spreading  material  dumped 


RAILROAD  CONSTRUCTION  299 

along  the  track  on  fills  or  in  yards.  A  heavy  plow  can  be  readily 
attached  to  a  frame  projecting  from  either  side  of  the  car  and  used 
to  excavate  material  too  hard  for  the  buckets  or  beyond  their 
reach.  For  dressing  slopes,  widening  cuts  or  trimming  ballast, 
a  scraper  is  attached  to  a  pair  of  telescopic  struts  and  extends 
from  the  side  of  the  car. 

The  Bowman  ditcher  and  grader  has  been  used  by  several 
railroads  for  roadbed  maintenance.  A  machine  in  recent  years 
used  on  the  Southern  Pacific  R.R.  handled  22,320  cu.  yd.  of 
earth  from  8650  lin.  ft.  of  ditch  at  a  cost  of  about  6J^  cents  per 
cubic  yard.  The  average  output  for  this  grader  was  8720 
cu.  yd.  per  month  at  an  average  cost  of  15  cents  per  cubic  yard. 

189.  Resume. — Where  the  magnitude  of  the  work  is  under 
50,000  cu.  yd.,  some  form  of  scraper  or  grader  can  be  econom- 
ically used,  especially  where  the  cuts  are  light  ard  the  material 
is  loose  earth  that  can  be  readily  excavated. 

The  scarcity  and  high  cost  of  labor  have  in  very  recent  years 
developed  the  use  of  power  machinery.  The  older  types  such 
as  the  steam  shovel  and  drag-line  excavator  have  been  modified 
and  adapted  to  light  work  and  unfavorable  soil  conditions  and 
many  highly  specialized  types  have  been  introduced.  The  re- 
volving shovel  has  been  used  efficiently  in  the  excavation  of  small 
cuts  as  occurs  in  railroad  construction  in  gently  rolling  country. 
In  rough  country  and  for  the  excavation  of  hard  materials  such 
as  hard-pan,  gravel  and  rock,  the  larger  and  heavier  types  of 
steam  shovels  are  required. 

The  drag-line  excavator  has  established  itself  as  an  efficient 
type  of  power  excavator  in  railroad  construction.  In  locations 
where  the  material  is  borrowed  from  the  side  of  the  right  of  way 
for  the  construction  of  cuts,  and  where  the  excavation  from  cuts 
may  be  disposed  of  by  overcasting,  the  drag-line  machine  may  be 
used  without  any  equipment  for  hauling  the  material  at  a  consider- 
able saving  of  operating  cost.  In  wet  and  soft  soil  conditions, 
the  use  of  the  caterpillar  tractors,  enables  the  machine  to  work 
through  swamp  and  marsh  lands  and  to  handle  material  within  a 
wide  range  vertically  and  through  a  complete  circle  horizontally. 

The  ditching  train  is  especially  adapted  to  the  maintenance 
of  long  sections  of  roadbed,  the  cleaning  out  of  side  ditches  and 
the  widening  of  cuts.  The  use  of  a  well-designed  ditcher  and 
dump  cars  is  to  be  recommended  over  the  older  form  of  ditch- 
ing train.  The  operation  of  the  unloader  is  often  attended  with 


300     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

difficulties  especially  in  the  removal  of  heavy  soils  and  where 
large  rock  occur.  The  displacement  or  "  jumping  "  of  the  unload- 
ing plow  may  sometimes  result  in  a  serious  delay  in  handling 
material. 

The  especially  designed  ditcher  and  grader  has  been  used  to  a 
limited  extent  on  railroad  roadbed  maintenance  and  has  proved 
to  be  a  very  economical  machine  for  the  cleaning  out  of  side 
ditches,  the  smoothing  up  of  side  slopes  and  the  trimming  of  the 
ballast  and  shoulders  of  fills.  The  initial  cost  of  such  a  machine 
is  large  but  the  cost  of  operation  and  excavation  is  sufficiently 
low  to  justify  its  use  on  lines  where  there  is  enough  work  to  keep 
it  in  use  a  larger  part  of  the  time. 

190.  Bibliography.-— For  further  information  consult  the 
following : 

Books 

1.  "Building  a  Railroad,"  published  in  1914  by  American   Hoist    and 
Derrick  Company,  St.  Paul,  Minn.     4^  in.  X  7  in.,  66  pages,  figures. 

2.  "Design  of  Railway  Location,"  by  C.  C.  WILLIAMS,    published  in 
1917  by  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  New  York.     6  in.  X  9  in.,  517  pages,  106 
figures.     Cost,  $3.50. 

3.  "Earthwork  and  Its  Cost,"  by  H.  P.  GILLETTE,  published  in  1912  by 
McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  New  York.     5  in.  X  8  in.,  238  pages,  figures. 
Cost,  $2.00. 

4.  "Handbook   of   Cost    Data,"    by    H.    P.    GILLETTE,    published   by 
McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  New  York.    4%  in.  X  7  in.,  1900   pages. 
Cost,  $5.00. 

5.  "Handbook  of  Construction  Plant,"  published  in  1914  by  McGraw- 
Hill  Book  Company,  New  York.     4%  in.  X  7  in.,  702  pages,  figures.     Cost, 
$5.00. 

6.  "Handbook  of  Steam  Shovel  Work,"  prepared  for  the  Bucyrus  Company 
of  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  by  the  Construction  Service  Company  of  New  York. 
Published  in  1911.     374  pages,  85  figures,  4  in.  X  6^  in.     Cost,  $1.50. 

7.  "Railroad  Construction,"  by  CRANDALL  and  BARNES,  published  in 

1914  by  McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,   New  York.     6  in.   X  9  in.,  321 
pages,  81  figures.     Cost,  $3.00. 

8.  "Railway  Maintenance  Engineering,"  by  W.  H.  SELLEW,  published  in 

1915  by   D.  Van  Nostrand  Company,  New  York.     5  in.  X  7K  in.,  360 
pages,  194  figures.     Cost,  $5.00. 

Magazine  Articles 

1.  Classification  of  Material  in  the  Transcontinental  Railway.     Canadian 
Engineer,  January  5,  1911.     Illustrated,  3000  words. 

2.  Company-Force  Work  on  the  Louisville  &  Nashville  Railroad.     Engi- 
neering Record,  August  9,  1913.     Illustrated,  2700  words. 


RAILROAD  CONSTRUCTION  301 

3.  Constructing   Embankments   with   Suction    Dredges.     Railway   Age 
Gazette,  November  20,  1914.     Illustrated,  1200  words. 

4.  Cost  of  Steam  Shovel  Work.     Railroad  Gazette,  December  21,  1916. 
2200  words. 

5.  Cost  of  Steam  Shovel  Work  in  Railway  Betterment.     Engineering 
News,  August  9,  1906.     2300  words. 

6.  Different  Methods  and  Comparative  Costs  of  Ditching  Cuts.     Railway 
Age  Gazette,  May  19,  1911.     1000  words. 

7.  Ditching  with  the  Bowman  Ditcher.     Railway  Age  Gazette,  August  18, 
1911.     Illustrated,  1000  words. 

8.  Dragline    Excavators    in     Railroad     Construction.     Railway    Age 
Gazette,  June  19,  1914.     Illustrated,  1200  words. 

9.  Dragline   Makes   Heavy   Railroad   Cut  Through  Cleveland.     Engi- 
neering News-Record,  July  12,  1917.     Illustrated,  1500  words. 

10.  Earthwork     Shrinkage,     Application     and     Amount.     Engineering- 
Contracting,  June  1,  1910.     2500  words. 

11.  Earth  Excavation,  H.  CONTAG.     Zeitschrift  des  Vereines  Deulscher 
Ingenieure,  Berlin,  September  3,  1910. 

12.  Excavating  for  Side  Tracks  in  Baltimore.     Contractor,  July  1,  1916. 
Illustrated,  2000  words. 

13.  Hydraulic  Excavation  of  a  Large  Cut  in  Cleveland,  Ohio,   Grade 
Crossing  Elimination.     Engineering  &  Contracting,  July  19,   1916.     Illus- 
trated, 900  words. 

14.  Hydraulic  Grading  for  Railroad  Embankment.     Engineering  Record, 
March  7,  1914.     Illustrated,  2000  words. 

15.  Lowries'   Power    Excavator.     Railroad  Gazette,   December  8,    1899. 
Illustrated,  1300  words. 

16.  Methods  and  Cost  of  Steam  Shovel  Work  Loading  Slag,  Earth  and 
Sand  into  Cars  for  Railway  Ballasting  and  Grading.     Engineering-Con- 
tracting, July  27,  1910.     800  words. 

17.  Methods  and  Costs  of  Electric  Shovel  Work  Removing  Slides  and  Side 
Cutting  for  Electric  Railways.     Engineering  &  Contracting,  February  17, 
1915.     Illustrated,  1000  words. 

18.  Methods  and  Cost  of  Moving  Earth  with  Fresno  Scrapers  in  Arizona, 
and  the  Cost  of  Trimming  Slopes.     Engineering-Contracting,  October  2, 
1907.     1500  words. 

19.  Methods,  of  Constructing  a  96-ft.  Fill  Across  Papio  Valley  on  the 
Union  Pacific  Ry.     Engineering-Contracting,  May  17,   1911.     Illustrated, 
3500  words. 

20.  Methods   of   Excavating   Rock  in  Large   Masses.     Engineering  & 
Mining  Journal,  August  3,  1907.     2500  words. 

21.  Methods    of    Handling    Light    Earthwork.     Railway    Age   Gazette, 
August  15,  1913.     Illustrated,  2000  words. 

22.  Methods  of  Making  Deep  Fills  by  Suspending  Tr&cks  from  Cable- 
way.    Engineering-Contracting,  July  20,  1910.     3000  words. 

23.  Railway  Steam  Shovel  of  New  Design.     Engineering  News,  August  4, 
1904.     Illustrated,  2800  words. 

24.  The  Rainy  Lake  Fill.     Scientific  American  Supplement,  April  4,  1914. 
Illustrated,  2000  words. 


302      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

25.  Record  of  Steam  Shovel  Work,  Ann  Arbor  Railroad.     Engineering 
Nevjs,  July  23,  1896.     800  words. 

26.  Steam  Shovels  and  Steam  Shovel  Work  in  Railway  Construction. 
Engineering  News,  April  11,  1907.     2000  words. 

27.  Suction  Dredges  in    Railroad    Construction.     Western  Engineering, 
January,    1916.     Illustrated,  900  words. 

28.  Two   Methods  of   Constructing   Railway   Embankment   Over   Soft 
Grounds.     Engineering  &  Contracting,  June  12,  1912,  Illustrated,  700  words. 


•  CHAPTER  XIX 
RECLAMATION  WORK 

191.  Preliminary. — Reclamation  work  includes  the  construc- 
tion of  ditches,  canals,  the  foundations  for  masonry  structures, 
earth  dams,  levees,  etc.,  for  irrigation  and  drainage  projects,  and 
flood  prevention  and  flood  protection  works. 

The  type  of  machinery  to  be  used  in  any  case  depends  on  the 
character,  magnitude  and  distribution  of  the  work.  This  is 
especially  true  in  reclamation  work  where  the  construction  of 
the  smaller  ditches,  canals  or  levees  usually  requires  some  form  of 
light,  portable  excavator  which  entails  small  initial  cost  of  plant 
and  adaptability  of  light  excavation  extending  over  considerable 
areas.  Light,  inexpensive  outfits  should  be  used  where  practicable 
even  if  less  efficient  than  heavier  equipment  in  order  to  secure 
low  unit  costs.  The  recent  and  more  universal  use  of  the  power 
tractor  in  place  of  teams  has  been  a  great  factor  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  economic  use  of  scrapers  and  graders  in  earth-work. 

Irrigation  structures  are  largely  built  in  the  arid  zone  where 
dry  soil  conditions  favor  the  use  of  the  dry-land  types  of  ex- 
cavators; scrapers,  graders,  drag-line  excavators,  power  shovels, 
templet  excavators,  etc. 

Drainage  structures  usually  consist  of  ditches  and  canals  built 
through  low,  wet  lands  and  require  the  use  of  some  type  of  float- 
ing excavator,  although  soil  conditions  occasionally  permit  the 
use  of  some  form  of  dry-land  excavator  such  as  the  drag-line 
machine. 

Flood  prevention  and  flood  protection  works  consist  largely  in 
the  construction  of  reservoirs,  levees  and  canals  and  the  work 
may  require  either  the  dry-land  or  floating  type  of  excavator. 
Each  case  or  each  particular  job  should  be  studied  independently, 
and  occasionally  on  a  large  project  in  connection  with  other  parts 
of  the  work,  to  determine  from  the  governing  factors  of  soil 
conditions,  magnitude  and  extent  of  the  work,  length  of  haul, 
labor  and  fuel  condition,  etc.,  the  proper  equipment  to  be  used. 

303 


304      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

The  discussion  of  the  various  types  of  excavators  used  in  re- 
clamation work  will  be  considered  in  three  general  divisions; 
irrigation  works,  drainage  works,  and  flood  prevention  and  flood 
protection  works. 

I.     IRRIGATION  WORKS 

192.  Scrapers. — The  Fresno  scraper,  drawn  by  four  horses, 
has  been  found  to  be  very  efficient  in  the  excavation  of  canals. 
The  long  cutting  edge  is  especially  adapted  to  the  pushing  ahead 
of  large  quantities  of  material.     The  economic  limit  of  haul  is 
about  250  ft.  and  beyond  this  distance  the  wheel  scraper  should 
be  used.     See  Art.  11,  page  8. 

The  best  form  of  wheel  scraper  to  use  for  hauls  of  from  250 
ft.  to  1000  ft.  is  the  four-wheel  scraper.  See  Art.  15,  page  12. 
It  is  from  50  to  100  per  cent,  more  efficient  than  the  two- wheel 
scraper  for  hauls  of  300  ft.  and  over.  A  traction  engine  should 
be  used  wherever  practicable  for  the  loading  of  the  scrapers  as 
this  method  of  loading  is  cheaper  and  quicker  than  with  the  use 
of  animals  for  a  snatch  team.  See  Art.  162,  page  250. 

193.  Use  of  Scrapers  in  Idaho. — The  excavation  of  the  main 
canal  of  the  Payette-Boise  project  of  the  U.  S.  Reclamation 
Service  near  Nampa,  Idaho,  comprised  the  excavation  of  about 
654,000  cubic  yards.     The  work  was  started  in  February,  1906, 
and  completed  in  March,  1908. 

The  following  detailed  statement  gives  the  unit  cost  of  excava- 
tion of  the  various  classes  of  material.  During  the  early  part  of 
the  work,  a  10-hr,  working  day  was  used,  but  most  of  the  work 
was  done  with  an  8-hr,  working  day.  The  following  rate  of 
wages  was  paid  on  the  basis  of  an  8-hr,  day: 

Superintendent,  $125.00  per  month;  timekeeper,  $100.00  per 
month;  foreman,  $3.00  to  $4.00  per  day;  powder  man,  $3.00 
per  day;  drivers,  $2.50  per  day;  laborers,  $2.25  per  day; 
stable  boss,  $67.00  per  month.  Coal  cost  $9.00  per  ton  on  the 
job;  black  powder  $2.00  per  keg  and  giant  powder  $0.15  per 
pound. 

Class  1  excavation  consisted  largely  of  a  stiff  loam  containing 
a  large  percentage  of  clay,  and  loose  rock  of  various  sizes  scattered 
through  the  material.  The  excavation  was  made  almost  entirely 
from  the  canal  section  and  about  one-half  was  handled  with 
Fresno  scrapers  and  the  remainder  with  slip  and  two-wheel 
scrapers. 


RECLAMATION  WORK  305 

TABLE  XIX. — UNIT  COSTS  OF  CANAL  EXCAVATION 


Item 

Class  1 

467,785 
cu.  yd. 

Class  2 

69,009 
cu.  yd. 

Class  3 

20,303 
cu.  yd. 

Class  4 

10,933 
cu.  yd. 

Class  5 

85,828 
cu.  yd. 

Class  6 

207,074 
cu.  yd. 

Interest                      .  .  . 

SO.  002 
0.001 
0.003 
0.006 
0.001 
0.014 
0.001 
0.019 

$0.005 
0.002 
0.006 
0.011 
0.002 
0.025 
0.001 
0.056 

$0.008 
0.004 
0  008 
0.014 
0  004 
0.031 
0.002 
0.058 
0  057 
0.098 

0.255 
0.021 
0.001 

$0.009 
0.004 
0.009 
0.017 
0.003 
0.033 
0.001 
0.085 
0.021 
0.029 

0.294 
0.032 
0.001 

$0.017 
0.008 
0.020 
0.042 
0.007 
0.092 
0.002 

0.209 
0.225 

0.507 
0.004 

$0.001 
0.001 

0.021 

$0.023 
0.001 

Preparation 

Depreciation  

Repairs 

General  supplies  
Superintendence 

Grubbing  

Plowing             

Drilling  hand 

Explosives  and  drills.  .  .  . 

Loading,     hauling     and 
spreading  

0  089 
0.006 
0.001 

0.164 
0.016 
0.003 

Finishing  . 

Water  and  hauling 

Contractor's  total  cost 
Engineering  

$0.143 
0.007 

$0.291 
0.016 

$0.561 
0  022 

$0.538 
0.035 

$1.133 
0  046 

Total  cost  

$0.150 

$0.307 

$0.583 

$0.573 

$1.179 

$0.024 

Class  2  excavation  consisted  of  an  indurated  clay  and  gravel 
which  could  be  plowed  by  a  10-horse  team.  The  material  was 
usually  found  below  the  Class  1  material  and  was  handled  by 
means  of  Fresno  and  two- wheel  scrapers. 

Class  3  excavation  consisted  of  indurated  clay  and  gravel  which 
required  blasting.  It  occurred  near  the  surface  of  the  canal  in 
spots.  After  being  broken  up,  the  material  was  removed  by 
two-wheel  scrapers. 

Class  4  excavation  consisted  of  boulders  less  than  J^ 
cu.  yd.  in  volume,  scattered  through  the  Class  1  material. 
The  material  was  removed  with  stone  boats  used  in  conjunction 
with  two- wheel  and  Fresno  scrapers. 

Class  5  excavation  consisted  of  boulders  exceeding  J^ 
cu.  yd.  in  volume  and  solid  rock  requiring  blasting.  This 
material  was  drilled  by  hand  and  blasted  largely  by  black  powder. 
About  two-thirds  of  the  material  occurred  in  three  heavy  cuts, 
the  remainder  being  scattered  along  the  canal.  The  fractured 
material  was  removed  by  stone  boats  and  horse-power  derricks. 
20 


306      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

194.  Use  of  Drag  and  Fresno  Scrapers  in  Colorado. — In  the  ex- 
cavation of  a  ditch  in  eastern  Colorado,  having  a  6-ft.  bottom 
width,  average  depth  of  7  ft.,  and  side  slopes  of  1>2  to  1,  a  No.  1 
drag  scraper  or  "slip"  moved  by  a  team  excavated  from  30  to 
75  yd.,  or  an  average  of  50  cu.  yd.  of  earth  (sandy  loam),  in  a 
working  day  of  10  hours.     A  No.  1  " Fresno"  scraper,  moved  by 
four  horses  under  the  same  conditions  and  on  the  same  work, 
excavated  from  50  to  175  cu.  yd.  or  an  average  of  110  cu.  yd.  in 
the  same  time.     The  excavation  cost  10  cents  per  cubic  yard. 
This  example  shows  the  superiority  and  greater  capacity  of  the 
Fresno  scraper  in  this  class  of  earthwork. 

195.  Use  of  Fresno  Scrapers  in  Nevada.1 — The  Reclamation 
Service  used  the  Fresno  scraper  in  the  construction  of  an  irri- 
gation canal  near  Fallen,  Nevada,  during  April,  May  and  June, 
1906.     The  soil  excavated  was  principally  a  compact  sand,  with 
some  gravel,  loam  and  sub-soil  of  hard  clay  in  places.     The  ditch 
had  an  average  bottom  width  of  20  ft.  and  side  slopes  of  2  to  1. 
The  spoil  bank  was  made  6  to  12  ft.  wide  on  top  and  with  an  aver- 
age height  above  grade  of  7%  feet.     The  canal  was  generally  lo- 
cated along  a  comparatively  even  side  hill,  although  in  places  ma- 
terial from  cuts  as  deep  as  20  ft.,  was  wasted  beyond  a  50-ft. 
berm  or  hauled  200  ft.  to  300  ft.  to  reinforce  the  banks  along 
adjacent  depressions. 

The  berms  were  first  plowed  and  the  entire  right-of-way  cleared 
of  brush  before  the  excavation  of  the  canal  was  begun.  It  was 
excavated  truly  to  grade  and  the  side  slopes  carefully  trimmed. 
The  length  of  the  working  day  was  8  hours. 

A  very  good  illustration  of  the  efficiency  of  Fresno  scrapers  in 
the  excavation  of  ditches  is  given  in  the  following  example. 

The  ditch  was  for  irrigation,  having  an  average  depth  of  6  ft. 
to  7>^  ft.  and  side  slopes  2  to  1.  The  excavated  material 
generally  formed  the  banks.  The  soil  excavated  was  a  sandy 
loam. 

The  working  force  was  made  up  of  10  to  12  Fresno  scrapers  and 
a  two-horse  plow  which  loosened  up  the  earth  for  the  scrapers. 
Each  scraper  worked  continuously  back  and  forth,  down  one 
bank  and  up  the  other.  Each  driver  loaded  and  dumped  his 
own  scraper.  One  finishing  scraper  was  used  to  trim  up  the  sides 
and  bottom  of  the  ditch.  The  men  were  paid  $2.25  for  an  8-hr, 
working  day. 

1  Abstracted  from  Engineering-Contracting,  November  3,  1909. 


RECLAMATION  WORK  307 

The  following  table  gives  the  working  cost  per  scraper  per  day : 

Labor: 

Four  horses,  Fresno  and  driver $5 . 30 

One-tenth  of  two-horse  plow  and  driver  @  $3 . 95 0 . 395 

One-tenth  of  loader 0. 225 

One-tenth  of  foreman  @  $4.00 0.40 

Total. $6.32 

Average  excavation  per  scraper  per  day 125  cu.  yd. 

Cost  of  excavation  per  cu.  yd.,  $6.32  -5-  125   =  5.06  cents. 

196.  Use  of  Four-wheel  Scrapers  in  Oregon. — The  Maney 
four-wheel  scraper  was  used  in  the  construction  of  the  South 
Branch  Canal  on  the  Klamath  Project  near  Klamath  Falls, 
Oregon.     This  canal  is  unique  in  its  being  built  in  an  elevated 
enbankment  above  the  general  level  of  the  original  surface  of  the 
land.     The  top  of  the  dike  is  14  ft.  and  the  bottom  of  the  finished 
canal  is  8  ft.  above  the  original  ground  surface.     The  material 
was  placed  in  6  in.  layers,  sprinkled,  and  rolled  only  by  the  trac- 
tive action  of  the  wheels  of  the  scrapers.    The  average  haul  from 
borrow  pit  to  dike  was  400  feet.    The  material  excavated  from  the 
borrow  pit  was  sandy  loam  for  the  first  18  in.  and  underlying  this 
33^  ft.  of  hard-pan.     This  latter  material  required  8  to  10  head  to 
move  the  plow  through  it.     The  total  amount  of  material  handled 
was  170,000  cu.  yd.  and  the  average  cost  of  handling  per  cubic 
yard  was  14  cents. 

197.  Use  of  Four-wheel  Scrapers  in  Colorado. — The  use  of 
this   four-wheel   scraper  for  3    years    in    the    construction    of 
reservoir  dikes  and  irrigation  ditches  in  Colorado,  where  a  fric- 
tion drum  and  cable  attached  to  a  traction  engine  were  used  for 
extra  power  in  loading,  gave  good  results.     Two  sizes  of  this  ma- 
chine were  used,  a  three-horse  holding  1  yd.  and  a  four-horse  holding 
1^2  yards.     The  material  averaged  from  a  loose  sand  to  a  very 
stiff  clay.    A  loading  average  was  made  of  100  loads  per  hour  with 
each  loading  engine.     The  cost  of  excavating  and  moving  the 
dirt  was  from  5  to  8  cents  per  cubic  yard  on  short  hauls  of  100 
to  200  ft ;  for  longer  hauls  the  cost  was  1  cent  per  cubic  yard  per 
100  ft.  increase  of  length  of  haul.     The  large  size  of  scraper  can 
be  economically  used  up  to  a  2000-ft.  haul. 

Figure  158  shows  a  gang  of  scrapers  using  a  traction  engine  in 
the  place  of  snatch  teams. 


308      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


198.  Use  of  Four-wheel  Scrapers  in  Illinois.1 — The  excavation 
of  a  site  for  a  large  artificial  lake  at  Libertyville,  Illinois,  was 
recently  accomplished  with  Maney  scrapers. 

The  area  of  the  pit  excavated  was  oval  in  shape  with  a  diameter 
of  about  400  feet.  The  material  was  a  very  hard  brick  clay. 

The  scrapers  were  loaded,  at  first,  with  snatch  teams  but  later 
a  10-h.p.  double-drum  engine  was  used.  The  engine  was  placed 


FIG.  158. — Maney    scrapers    on    irrigation    work.     (Courtesy    of   Baker    Mfg. 

Co.) 

on  the  bank  of  the  pit  and  a  %  in.  diameter  steel  cable  run  from 
each  drum  through  a  two-sheave  steel  pulley  block  anchored 
to  a  "deadman"  about  50  ft.  away.  The  outer  end  of  each  cable 
was  fastened  to  a  hook,  attached  to  the  tongue  of  a  scraper.  The 
operation  of  each  drum  of  the  engine  wound  up  the  cable  and 
pulled  the  scraper  through  the  plowed  ground  toward  the  bank  of 
the  pit.  Either  one  or  two  scrapers  could  be  loaded  at  one  time. 
Generally  one  scraper  proceeded  to  the  dump,  while  the  other 
one  drew  the  cables  back  to  the  loading  point.  The  average  haul 
was  about  500  ft.,  varying  from  200  to  1200  feet. 

Abstracted  from  Engineering-Contracting,  September  18,  1912. 


f 

RECLAMATION  WORK  309 

Each  scraper  required  the  services  of  only  one  man  who  rode, 
drove  the  team  and  operated  the  levers  for  loading  and  dumping 
the  scoop.  The  operation  of  the  engine  was  controlled  by  one 
man. 

The  following  is  a  statement  of  the  work  for  July,   1912. 

6338  loads  of  about  29  cu.  ft.  equal  5106  cu.  yd.  (place  meas.) 

Average  number  of  cu.  yd.  excavated  per  team-hour 3.01 

Average  number  of  cu.  yd.  excavated  per  scraper-hour. ...       3.92 
Average  number  of  cu.  yd.  excavated  per  scraper  per  day     35.3 
Average  number  of  cu.  yd.  excavated  per  day 255.3 

The  labor  cost  for  this  work  is  given  as  follows : 

1  foreman $3 . 00 

1  dumpman 2 . 25 

2  pitmen  @  $2.25 4.50 

1  engineer 2 . 75 

9  teams  and  men  with  7  scrapers  @  $5.00 45.00 

Total  labor  cost  per  day $57. 50 

Average  excavation  per  day 255. 3  cu.  yd. 

Labor  cost  of  excavation,  $57.50  -f-  255.3  =  $0.225  per  cu.  yd. 

199.  Graders. — The  two-wheel  grader  can  be  used  to  advan- 
tage for  construction  of  the  smaller  lateral  and  distribution  ditches 
of  an  irrigation  system.  See  Arts.  20  and  21,  page  20.  The 
machine  will  construct  V-shaped  laterals  from  12  to  36  in.  deep, 
and  from  24  to  60  in.  wide  at  the  top,  at  a  cost  of  from  2  to  8 
cents  per  rod. 

The  ordinary  road  or  blade  grader  is  not  well  adapted  to  the 
excavation  of  ditches  and  canals.  However,  a  special  form  of 
blade  grader,  the  Reclamation  grader,  has  been  successfully 
used  in  the  construction  of  irrigation  ditches  in  Colorado,  Idaho 
and  Montana.  The  machine  has  a  much  greater  latitude  in  the 
vertical  adjustment  of  blade  and  the  lateral  or  oblique  motion 
of  the  wheels  of  both  trucks  than  the  ordinary  road  grader.  It 
can  excavate  ditches  to  a  depth  of  3  ft.  below  the  original  surface, 
to  a  bottom  width  of  10  ft.,  and  with  side  slopes  as  steep  as  2  to  1. 
The  cost  of  construction  of  irrigation  ditches  has  run  from  1 
cent  to  8  cents  per  cubic  yard,  depending  on  the  cross-section 
of  the  ditch  and  the  character  of  the  soil. 

The  elevating  grader  can  be  used  for  the  excavation  of  ditches 
and  canals,  especially  where  the  soil  conditions  allow  for  unin- 


310     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

terrupted  operation  and  the  material  can  be  deposited  directly 
in  the  spoil  banks.  The  diagrams  of  Fig.  159  show  the  range 
of  size  of  ditches  which  can  be  excavated  by  an  elevating  grader, 
without  using  dump  wagons.  The  method  of  excavation  of  a 
ditch  or  canal  depends  on  the  width  and  depth.  The  smaller 


Diagram  E 


15 'Elevator,  crossfiring. 


'  Elevator,  working  outside  to  center 
50' 


FIG. 


159. — Cross-sections  of  ditches  and  canals. 
Scraper  Co.) 


(Courtesy  of  Western  Wheeled 


ditches  are  generally  excavated  by  starting  at  one  side  and  throw- 
ing the  material  to  the  spoil  bank  on  the  opposite  side.  As 
the  ditch  becomes  wider,  it  is  necessary  to  work  from  the  center 
of  the  section,  moving  the  material  to  each  side  and  doing  the 
work  in  sections.  The  elevating  grader  is  not  an  efficient  machine 


FIG.   160. — Elevating  grader'on  canal  construction. 

for  the  excavation  of  a  canal  having  a  bottom  width  of  less  than 
10  ft.,  as  the  machine  does  not  have  room  in  which  to  operate 
freely.  It  is  necessary  to  follow  up  the  grader  with  a  scraper  or 
blade  grader  in  order  to  secure  a  uniform  grade  and  smooth  side 
slopes.  Figure  160  shows  an  elevating  grader  constructing  an 
irrigation  canal  in  the  Middle  West. 


I  • 

RECLAMATION  WORK  311 

200.  Use  of  Elevating  Grader  in  Montana. — On  the  Blackfeet 
Project  of  the  U.  S.  Reclamation  Service,  near  Blackfeet,  Mon- 
tana, a  New  Era  Reversible  Elevating  Grader  was  used  in  the 
construction    of    an   irrigation   ditch  having  a   bottom   width 
varying  from  10  to  15  feet.     Eighteen  heavy  mules  were  used 
to  draw  the  grader,  the  elevator  belt  of  which  was  run  by  a 
,9-h.p.   gasoline  engine.     The  ditch  was  excavated  principally 
on  flat  country  and  on  hillside  with  slight  slopes.     The  material 
excavated  was  principally  clear  loam  and  loam  mixed  with  a 
small  amount  of  gravel.     Four  men  were  required  to  operate 
the  machine  and  the  average  excavation  was  110  cu.yd.  per  hour, 
at  a  cost  of  6  cents  per  yard  for  actual  operation  (not  including 
administration  and  camp  expense).     The  experience  of  the  engi- 
neers on  this  project  in  the  use  of  elevating  graders  in  the  exca- 
vation of  ditches  or  canals,  showed  that  although  animals  as 
motive  power  gave  good  satisfaction,  the  greatest  efficiency  and 
economy  are  secured  by  the  use  of  a  traction  engine.     This  type 
of  excavator  cannot  be  used  to  advantage  on  a  ditch  having  a 
bottom  width  of  less  than  10  feet. 

A  Western  Standard  elevating  grader  was  used  in  Montana, 
in  the  construction  of  irrigation  ditches.  The  material  excavated 
was  a  heavy  sandy  loam  and  was  wasted  on  both  sides  of  the  itch. 
On  the  basis  of  a  10-hr,  day,  an  average  excavation  of  900  cu.  yd. 
was  made  at  a  cost  for  power  and  labor  of  7  cents  per  cubic  yard. 
Experience  on  this  work  showed  that  the  grader  was  useful  only 
in  the  excavation  of  large  ditch  prisms  and  that  it  was  generally 
necessary  to  use  some  other  machinery  to  finish  the  ditches  and 
make  smooth  side  slopes  and  bottoms. 

201.  Power  Shovels. — The  larger  sizes  of  the  fixed-platform 
type  of  power  shovel  are  generally  not  adapted  to  ordinary 
canal  excavation,  except  for  channels  of  large  cross-section  and 
through  hard-pan  or  rock.     These  machines  are  efficient  in  the 
excavation  of  the  foundations  of  dams,  power  houses  and  other 
structures. 

The  revolving  shovel  has  been  successfully  used  in  canal  ex- 
cavation where  the  cross-section  is  of  sufficient  width  to  permit 
of  its  free  operation;  the  minimum  bottom  width  of  channel 
being  about  15  feet.  However,  unless  the  material  to  be  exca- 
vated is  hard-pan  or  rock,  some  other  form  of  excavator  can  gen- 
erally be  used  to  better  advantage. 


312     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

The  use  of  power  shovels  in  the  construction  of  earth  dams  and 
reservoirs  will  be  discussed  in  the  following  division,  "  Flood  Pre- 
vention and  Flood  Protection  Works." 

202.  Use  of  Steam  Shovel  in  Texas. — An  irrigation  project  in 
the  Rio  Grande  Valley,  Texas,  including  the  construction  of 
a  ditch  or  canal  about  21  miles  long.     This  canal  had  a  bottom 
width  of  16  ft.,  an  average  depth  of  4%  ft.,  and  side  slopes,  in  earth , 
2  to  1,  in  rock  1  to  5,  and  for  embankments  1^  to  1.     The  grade 
of  the  canal  was  about  6  in.  in  1000  feet.     The  country  through 
which  the  canal  passes  was  very  rough  and  necessitated  many 
heavy  cuts  and  fills,  a  34-ft.  cut  in  solid  rock  being  made  in  one 
place. 

The  work  included  the  excavation  of  90,000  cu.  yd.  of  solid 
rock,  120,000  cu.  yd.  of  loose  rock,  and  1,750,000  cu.  yd.  of  earth. 
Steam  shovels  of  a  standard  make  were  used  in  the  entire  work. 

The  daily  operating  cost  of  each  shovel  is  given  as  follows: 

1  engineer $5 . 00 

1  assistant  engineer 5 . 00 

1  fireman 2 . 00 

1  coal  hauler 2 . 00 

1  water  hauler 2 . 00 

1  assistant 2 . 00 

2  tons  of  coal  @  $3.50 7.00 

Total  operating  cost $25 . 00 

Each  shovel  excavated  on  an  average  of  1000  cu.  yd.  of  earth 
or  500  cu.  yd.  of  rock  during  a  10-hr,  working  day.  The  size 
of  the  dippers  used  was  1  cubic  yard.  The  total  estimated  cost 
of  handling  the  earth  was  25  cents  per  cubic  yard  and  for  rock, 
was  50  cents  per  cubic  yard. 

203.  Use  of  Steam  Shovel  in  Utah. — A  self-traction  steam 
shovel  weighing  about  22  tons  and  equipped  with  a  %-cu.  yd. 
dipper  was  used  (1911-12)  in  the  construction  of  an  irrigation 
ditch  on  a  project  in  Grand  Valley,  near  Agate,  Utah.     The  ditch 
was  10  ft.  wide  on  the  bottom,  14  ft.  wide  on  top  and  2^  ft.  deep 
in  level  country.     There  were  several  deeper  cuts  through  hills, 
the  maximum  depth  of  which  was  10  feet.     The  shovel  was  run 
along  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  on  4-in.  X  12-in.  timbers  which 
served  as  a  track. 

The  work  involved  the  excavation  of  50,000  cu.  yd.  of  shale  and 
300,000  cu.  yd.  of  sandy  loam  and  clay.  Up  to  March,  1912, 


RECLAMATION  WORK 


313 


the  material  excavated  was  loose  and  solid  shale.  The  crew 
on  the  shovel  consisted  of  an  engineer,  a  cranesman,  a  fireman, 
and  four  laborers.  The  average  excavation  was  200  cu.  yd.  per 
day  of  10  hr.  and  the  average  cost  of  excavation  was  16  to  17 
cents  per  cubic  yard  (not  including  overhead  expenses).  In 
the  excavation  of  loose  shale  about  1  ton  of  coal  per  10-hr,  day 
was  consumed  and  2  tons  of  coal  in  the  excavation  of  solid  shale. 

The  trench  was  5  ft.  wide  and  14  ft.  deep  and  had  to  be  braced. 
The  material  excavated  was  hard  blue  clay. 

204.  Use  of  Atlantic  Steam  Shovel  in  Idaho. — During  1912  and 
1913,  the  preparation  of  the  foundation  of  the  Arrowrock  Dam 


FIG.  161. — Atlantic  steam  shovel  excavating  foundation  of  Arrowrock  Dam. 
(Courtesy  of  the  Bucyrus  Co.) 

near  Boise,  Idaho,  involved  the  excavation  of  about  230,000  cu. 
yd.  of  loose  boulders,  earth  and  rock.  About  57,700  cu. 
yd.  of  this  material  was  removed  in  the  fall  of  1912  with  an  At- 
lantic steam  shovel,  Class  45,  equipped  with  a  2%-yd.  dipper. 
Working  in  conjunction  with  the  shovel  were  two  Vulcan  16-ton 
and  one  American  16-ton  locomotives,  and  twenty-five  4-yd. 
Western  dump  cars.  Figure  161  shows  the  Atlantic  steam  shovel 
in  operation. 

The  material  in  places  was  composed  of  boulders  of  various 
sizes  up  to  150  cu.  yd.  and  were  nested  together  solidly  with  finer 
material  in  the  interstices.  Occasionally  blasting  was  necessary 


314     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

to  break  up  this  material  for  the  shovel.  This  required  consid- 
erable delay  and  hard  usage  for  the  shovel.  The  engineer's 
estimate  gave  27,300  cu.  yd.  of  solid  rock  and  30,400  cu.  yd.  of 
other  material. 

The  following  is  a  statement  of  the  cost  of  operation  of  the 
shovel  from  February  27,   1912  to  October  10,   1912: 

Shovel: 

Labor $6,935.49 

Fuel 2,122.75 

Supplies 1,732.79 

Miscellaneous 5 . 65 

Repairs 2,496 . 99 

Depreciation 905 . 48 


Total $14,199. 15 

Cost    of    shovel  operation    per    cu.    yd.,    $14,199.15  -f-  57,000  =  $0.246 


Dinkey  Trains: 

Labor $5,498. 11 

Fuel 1,710.99 

Supplies 696.22 

Track  maintenance 2,852 . 63 

Repairs 1,773.98 

Depreciation 1,214 . 80 


Total $13,746.73 


Cost  of  transportation  per  cu.  yd.,  $13,746.73  -^  57,000  =  $0.238 

Preliminary  expenses $1,099 . 89 

Grand  total $20,045.77 

Total    unit    cost  of    excavation,    $20,045.77  -f-  57,700  =  $0.503 


205.  Scraper-bucket  Excavators. — The  scraper  bucket  or  drag- 
line excavator  has  developed  into  one  of  the  most  efficient 
machines  for  the  excavation  of  ditches,  canals  and  foundations 
where  the  soil  is  free  from  large  rock,  stumps  and  other  obstruc- 
tions and  not  too  dense  and  hard.  The  ease  of  portability  and 
the  great  latitude  of  operation  of  the  drag-line  machine  adapt  it 
especially  for  the  excavation  of  canals;  the  smaller  ditches  being 


RECLAMATION  WORK  315 

built  by  one  machine  working  from  the  center  or  one  side  only, 
while  the  larger  canals  can  be  excavated  by  two  machines  working 
coordinately  along  both  sides.  See  Art.  59,  page  80. 

206.  Use  of  Drag-line  Excavator  in  Nevada. — The  Reclama- 
tion Service  used  (1912)  a  drag-line  excavator  in  the  construction 
of  canals  and  embankments  of  the  Truckee-C arson  project,  near 
Fallen,   Nevada.     The  excavator  was  equipped  with  a   14-ft. 
roller  circle,  a  60-ft.  structural  steel  boom  and  a  lj^-cu.  yd. 
three-line,   scraper  bucket.     The  machine  was  equipped  with 
electric  motors  throughout,   using  alternating  current  at  440 
volts.     The   current  was  generated  at  a  hydro-electric   plant 
located  on  the  main  canal  of  the  project.     The  cost  of  this  electric 
power  would  be  equivalent  to  coal  at  about   $2.00  per  ton. 
Steam-coal  at  <this  place  would  cast  $9.00  per  ton,  delivered  on 
the  excavator. 

The  average  capacity  of  the  machine,  excavating  gravel,  clay 
and  loam  under  ordinary  conditions,  was  about  500  cu.  yd.  per 
10-hr,  day.  It  required  the  service  of  one  operator  on  the  ma- 
chine and  two  trackmen  and  laborers  on  the  ground  to  operate 
the  excavator. 

207.  Use  of  Drag-line  Excavators  in  Idaho.— From  1910  to 
1914,  drag-line  excavators  were  used  in  the  construction  of  deep 
drainage  channels  on  the  North  Side  Mindoka  irrigation  project 
of  the  U.  S.  Reclamation  Service  in  Idaho.     These  drains  were 
about  10  ft.  deep  and  a  mile  to  a  mile  and  one-half  apart.     The 
material  excavated  was  a  sandy  loam  from  a  depth  of  from  3  ft. 
to  7  ft.,  underlaid  by  sand  and  gravel  to  a  depth  of  from  20  ft. 
to  30  feet. 

The  drag-line  excavators  consisted  of  two  steam-operated  ma- 
chines and  two  electric-operated  machines.  The  steam-operated 
machines  were  of  the  ordinary  type  and  were  built  on  the  job. 
They  had  revolving  frames,  rope  swing,  1-yd.  buckets,  58-ft. 
booms  and  cost  about  $5000.00.  The  electric-operated  machines 
were  of  the  Class  9^£  Bucyrus  type.  They  were  equipped  with 
gear  swing,  caterpillar  tractors,  1^-yd.  buckets,  54-ft.  booms 
and  cost  about  $13,800.00.  The  caterpillar  tractor  feature  of 
these  machines  was  found  to  be  very  efficient  in  providing  for 
the  movement  of  the  excavator  over  very  soft  or  rough  ground 
and  in  the  saving  of  time  and  the  services  of  one  laborer, 
required  for  the  roller  and  plank  operation  of  the  steam 
machines. 


316     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

The  two  steam  machines  excavated  675,000  cu.  yd.  of  material 
from  two  channels  at  an  average  cost  of  13.22  cents.  The 
following  is  a  detailed  statement  of  this  work: 

Cost  per  cubic  yard 

Labor  excavation $0 . 0434 

Hauling  and  pumping  water 0. 0123 

Hauling  and  handling  coal 0 . 0066 

Coal,  including  freight 0 . 0252 

Repairs,  labor 0 . 0017 

Repairs,  material 0 . 0051 

Cables 0.0034 

Carbide 0.0013 

Miscellaneous  supplies 0 . 0049 

Depreciation  in  machinery 0 . 0111 

Engineering  and  administration  (15  per  cent.) 0.0172 


Total $0. 1322 

The  following  statement  gives  the  detailed  cost  of  operation 
of  the  two  electric  machines  during  a  period  two  months: 

Cost  per  cubic  yard 

Labor  excavation $0 . 0204 

Electricity  at  $0 .01  per  kilowatt 0 . 0045 

Repairs,  labor 0.0001 

Repairs,  material 0.0004 

Steel  rope 0.0011 

Transmission  line  @  $0.06  per  foot 0.0078 

Miscellaneous  supplies 0 . 0035 

Depreciation  on  machinery 0 . 0240 

Engineering  and  administration  (15  per  cent.) 0.0092 


Total $0.0710 

208.  Use  of  Electrically  Operated  Drag-line  Excavators 
in  Montana.1 — Electrically  operated  drag-line  excavators  were 
used  for  canal  construction  during  1914  on  the  Sun  River  pro- 
ject of  the  U.  S.  Reclamation  Service  near  Great  Falls,  Montana. 
The  essential  part  of  the  work  consisted  of  the  building  of  a  45 
mile  canal,  largely  side-hill  work  and  through  heavy  material. 
Two  electrically  actuated  drag-line  machines  were  used  and  power 
was  furnished  to  three  points  along  the  canal  line  by  a  trans- 
mission line  75  miles  long.  The  following  is  a  description  of  the 
excavators  and  a  detailed  statement  of  the  operating  costs: 

1  Prepared  from  data  furnished  by  U.  S.  Reclamation  Service. 


RECLAMATION  WORK  317 

THE  CLASS  20  BUCYRUS  DRAG  LINE 

This  machine  is  an  electrically  actuated  drag  line  equipped 
with  85-ft.  boom,  2^£-cu.  yd.  Bucyrus  bucket  (old  type  with  cast- 
steel  swinging  bale) ;  the  main  motor  is  135  h.p.  and  the  swinging 
motor  75  horse  power.  There  is  also  a  2-h.p.  motor  direct  con- 
nected with  the  air  compressor  for  operating  brakes  and  frictions. 
The  machine  weighs  90  tons  when  ready  for  work.  The  crew 
employed  on  each  shift  during  the  period  covered  by  these  costs 
consisted  of  a  runner  at  $175.00  to  $225.00  per  month  who  acted 
as  shift  foreman;  an  oiler  and  four  trackmen  at  from  $2. 00  to  $2.50 
per  day;  an  electrician  who  served  for  all  shifts  at  $150.00  per 
month;  and  a  team  and  driver  at  $5.00  per  day,  which  hauled 
supplies,  moved  transformer  wagon  and  did  odd  trucking.  The 
machine  was  operated  two  shifts  most  of  the  period  but  at  the 
end  was  running  three  shifts.  Electric  energy  was  delivered  to 
contractors'  transformers  at  16,500  volts.  It  was  transformed  by 
one  set  to  2200  volts  and  stepped  down  on  the  machine  to  440 
volts.  The  cost  of  the  electricity  includes  cost  of  lights  for  the 
night  shifts.  The  electricity  cost  the  contractor  1  cent  per 
kilowatt-hour  measured  at  the  substation.  The  preliminary 
expense  given  on  the  list  attached  hereto  consisted  of  unload- 
ing the  machine  from  the  cars,  hauling  to  the  work,  erecting, 
camp  expense  and  other  incidental  expenses.  Excavating  ex- 
pense includes  supervision,  time-keeping  and  clerical. 

THE  CLASS  24  BUCYRUS   DRAG  LINE 

This  machine  is  owned  by  Yale  &  Reagan,  is  electrically  actu- 
ated, equipped  with  one  100-ft  boom  and  3^-cu.  yd.  heavy 
service  Page  bucket.  The  main  motor  is  200  h.p.  and  the  swing- 
ing motor  115  horse  power.  There  is  also  a  2-h.p.  motor  direct 
connected  to  the  air  compressor  for  operating  the  brakes  and  fric- 
tions. The  machine  weighs  about  120  tons  when  ready  for  work. 
The  crew  employed  during  the  period  covered  by  these  costs  for 
each  shift  consisted  of  a  runner  at  $175.00  to  $200.00  per  month; 
an  oiler  and  four  trackmen  at  from  $2.00  to  $2.50  per  day; an  elec- 
trician who  acted  as  foreman  for  both  shifts  at  $175.00  per  month; 
and  one  or  two  teams  with  drivers  at  $5.00  per  day,  who  moved 
the  transformers  and  brought  supplies  to  the  machine.  The  ma- 
chine was  operated  one  shift  the  first  part  of  the  period  when  1 J^- 
cu.  yd.  wagons  were  loaded  on  construction  of  a  large  rolled  em- 
bankment, and  two  shifts  a  large  part  of  the  period  when  the 


318      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


machine  was  excavating  for  a  concrete  lined  section  on  heavy 
side-hill  work,  the  upper  end  being  as  great  as  80  feet.  Electrical 
energy  was  delivered  to  the  contractor  at  16,500  volts  to  trans- 
former wagons,  where  it  was  stepped  down  to  2200  volts  and 
then  stepped  down  on  the  machine  to  440  volts.  The  cost  of 
electrical  energy  included  cost  of  lights  for  night  shift.  The 
electrical  energy  was  charged  to  the  contractor  at  1  cent  per  kilo- 
watt hour  at  the  substation. 

COST  OF  OPERATING  ELECTRICALLY  ACTUATED  DRAG  LINES 

Class  20  Drag  Line  owned  by  Buchanan  &  Co. 
Machine  operated  April  11  to  September  15,  1914. 

Total  amount  of  material  moved  (all  classes) 222,580  cu.  yd. 

Class  1 218,272  cu.  yd. 

Class  2 1,544  cu.  yd. 

Class  3 2,764  cu.  yd. 

Total  value  of  plant $20,957 . 13 

Cost  of  Entire  Excavation,  Including  Overhaul 


Item 

Total  cost 

Unit  cost 

Interest  on  investment  @  6  per  cent  
Preparatory  expense       

$903.18 
4,762  27 

$0.004 
0  021 

Plant  depreciation,  2  per  cent,  mo  
Repairs  

2,219.11 
1,592  39 

0.010 
0  007 

Executive  . 

1,350  63 

0  006 

Labor  
Supplies  

8,685.40 
2,213  43 

0.039 
0  010 

Electric  energy 

1  657  08 

0  008 

Total  cost  to  contractor 

$23,383  49 

$0  105 

Cost  of  Class  1,  Including  3860  cu.  yd.  Sta.  Overhaul 


Item 

Total  cost 

Unit  cost 

Interest  on  investment  @  6  per  cent  
Preparatory  expense  .... 

$851.49 

4.489.00 

$0.004 
0.021 

Plant  depreciation,  2  per  cent  mo 

2,093  00 

0  009 

Repairs 

1  500  45 

0  007 

Executive  

1,287.30 

0.006 

Labor  

8,162  76 

0  0374 

Supplies 

2,163  93 

0  010 

Electrical  energy  

1,581.43 

0.007 

Total  cost  to  contractor 

$22,129  36 

$0  1014 

(This  material  was  largely  a  fine  sandy  clay  with  some  water  in  the 
bottom,  and  some  coarse  loose  gravel.) 


RECLAMATION  WORK 
Cost  of  Class  2  Excavation,  1544  cubic  yards 


319 


Item 

Total  cost 

Unit  cost 

Interest  on  investment  @  6  per  cent  

$8.89 

$0   006 

Preparatory  expense 

47  15 

0  031 

Plant  depreciation   2  per  cent  mo 

21  80 

0  014 

Repairs                                                              .  • 

15  75 

0  010 

Executive 

2  73 

0  002 

Labor                                             

117.63 

0  076 

Electric  energy 

17  40 

0  Oil 

Total  cost  to  contractor  .  . 

$231.35 

$0.150 

(This  material  was  partly  coarse  tight  gravel  and  the  remainder  loose 
soft  sandstone.) 


Cost  of  Class  3  Excavation,  2764  cubic  yards 


Interest  on  investment  @  6  per  cent  

$42  80 

$0  015 

Preparatory  expense 

226  12 

0  082 

Plant  depreciation,  2  per  cent,  mo  

104.31 

0  038 

Repairs 

76  19 

0  027 

Executive  

60.60 

0.022 

Labor                             ...            ....        .  . 

492  01 

0  178 

Supplies 

49  50 

0  018 

Electric  energy  

58  25 

0  021 

Total  cost  to  contractor  

$1109.78 

$0.401 

(This  material  was  largely  seamy  sandstone  in  ledges  about  three  quarters 
of  which  was  removed  without  the  use  of  powder.) 


COST  OF  OPERATING  ELECTRICALLY  ACTUATED  DRAG  LINES 

Class  24  drag-line  owned  by  Yale  &  Reagan 
Machine  in  operation  from  March  20  to  December  1,  1914 

Total  amount  of  material  moved  (all  classes) 281,748  cu.  yd. 

Class  1 253,174  cu.  yd. 

Class  2 19,163  cu.  yd. 

Class  3 9,413  cu.  yd. 

Overhaul 145,000  cu.  yd.  sta. 

(Cost  of  overhaul  not  included  in  cost  of  excavation. 
Cost  of  contractor  4  cents  per  cu.  yd.  sta.) 

Total  value  of  plant $36,326 . 63 


320     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 
Cost  of  Entire  Excavation,  Excluding  Overhaul 


Item 

Total  cost 

Unit  cost 

Interest  on  Investment  @  6  per  cent  

$2,492.47 

$0.0089 

Preparatory  expense  .  . 

6  363  47 

0  0224 

Plant  depreciation  @  2  per  cent.  mo.  .    .  . 

6,382  68 

0  0227 

Repairs  

6  082  10 

0  0216 

Executive  

2  437  37 

0  0084 

Labor 

12  996  89 

0  0461 

Supplies  

4400  14 

0  0156 

Electric  energy.  . 

2  417  67 

0  0084 

Miscellaneous  

536  32 

0  0014 

Total  cost  to  contractor  

$44,109.11 

$0.1565 

Cost  of  Class  1  Excavation,  Excluding  Overhaul 


Interest  on  investment  @  6  per  cent  

$1,995  35 

$0  0079 

Preparatory  expense.  .  . 

5,100  00 

0  0205 

Plant  depreciation  @  2  per  cent,  mo  

5,105.58 

0.0202 

Repairs 

4  865  60 

0  0192 

Executive.  ... 

2  035  54 

0  008 

Labor 

10  412  55 

0  0413 

Supplies  

3,069  86 

0  0122 

Electric  energy.  . 

2035  54 

0  008 

Miscellaneous  

485.77 

0  0015 

Total  cost  of  contractor 

$35  105  79 

$0  1388 

Cost  of  Class  2  Excavation,  19,163  cubic  yards 


Item 

Total  cost 

Unit  cost 

Interest  on  investment  @  6  per  cent  

$194.00 

$0.0101 

Preparatory  expense 

767  63 

0  0400 

Plant  depreciation,  2  per  cent  mo 

497  10 

0  0259 

Repairs  

475.90 

0  .  0248 

Executive  .  .          .... 

200  .  78 

0.0105 

Labor 

1,018  44 

0  0531 

Supplies  

332.73 

0.0174 

Electric  energy.  ...                                    

197.72 

0  0103 

Miscellaneous 

30  11 

0  0016 

Total  cost  to  contractor  

$3,714.41 

$0  1937 

RECLAMATION  WORK 
Cost  of   Class   3  Excavation,  9413  cubic  yards 


321 


Interest  on  investment  @  6  per  cent 

$303  12 

$0  0322 

Preparatory  expense  

486  00 

0  0516 

Plant  depreciation  2  per  cent  mo. 

780  00 

0  0828 

Repairs              

740.60 

0  0786 

Executive                                  .          ....      .... 

201  05 

0  0213 

Labor           

1565.90 

0.1662 

Supplies                              

997.55 

0  1060 

Electric  energy 

184  41 

0  0196 

Miscellaneous        

20.44 

0  .  0022 

Total  cost  to  contractor  

$5279.07 

$0  5605 

(The  Class  2  and  Class  3  material  in  this  work  consisted  of  heavy 
tight  gravel  with  some  cemented  gravel,  and  seamy  sandstone  in  ledges, 
some  of  which  was  excavated  without  use  of  powder  and  the  remainder 
drilled  with  a  Fort  Wayne  Electric  Drill  and  blasted  with  black  powder.) 

Depreciation  on  the  plants  was  taken  at  2  per  cent,  per  month  continuous, 
whether  the  machine  was  running  or  not.  It  might  perhaps  better  have  been 
taken  at  3  per  cent,  per  month  when  the  machine  was  running,  which 
would  give  the  same  results  in  the  end,  i.e.,  a  four  season  life  for  the  machine. 
Preparatory  expense  has  to  be  prorated  over  the  work  done  and  as  more 
work  is  accomplished  this  item  will  decrease  in  amount.  There  will  be  of 
course  the  cost  of  dismantling  the  machines  when  the  work  is  done  and 
transporting  them  back  to  the  railroad. 


209.  Use  of  Drag-line  Excavator  in  Idaho. — The  use  of  an 

Atlantic  type  of  steam  shovel  in  the  preparation  of  the  founda- 
tion for  the  Arrowrock  Dam  was  described  in  Art.  204.  In  this 
article  will  be  given  a  brief  description  of  the  use  of  a  drag-line 
excavator  on  the  same  work. 

The  machine  was  of  the  regular  type,  equipped  with  a  70-ft. 
boom  and  a  2-yd.  bucket.  It  was  steam  operated  from  a  70-h.p. 
vertical  boiler,  and  mounted  on  skids  and  rollers.  The  body 
and  boom  were  built  of  timber. 

The  drag-line  excavator  moved  back  and  forth  across  the  bed 
of  the  foundation  over  a  zone  lying  underneath  two  nearly  paral- 
lel cableways,  which  were  used  to  elevate  and  transport  the  skips 
filled  by  the  excavators.  The  skips  were  placed  in  rows  of  6  or 
8  under  each  cableway  and  were  filled  successively  by  the 
drag-line  machine  which"  worked  from  either  side  so  as  to  be  out 
of  danger  from  work  falling  from  the  skips  as  they  were  raised. 
21 


322      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

A  view  of  the  drag-line  excavator  in  operation  is  shown  in  Fig. 
162. 


FIG.  162. — Excavation  of  foundation  for  Arrowrock  Dam.     (Courtesy  of  U.  S. 
Reclamation  Service.) 

The  material  handled  consisted  of  12,000  cii.  yd.  of  solid  rock 
previously  blasted  and  111,000  cu.  yd.  of  gravel  and  sand  with 
5  to  10  per  cent,  of  boulders  about  two-man  size.  The  follow- 
ing statement  gives  the  cost  of  operation: 


RECLAMATION  WORK 

Labor $9411.95 

Fuel 2357 . 40 

Supplies 3092.26 

Repairs 1801.81 

Depreciation 2025 . 26 

Preliminary    expenses 1012 . 63 


323 


Total  cost $19,701 .31 

Total  excavation 113,000    cu.  yd. 

Unit  cost  of  excavation,  $19,701.31  ^  113,000  =  $0.174. 


FIG.  163. — Templet    excavator    constructing    irrigation    ditch.     (Courtesy    of 

F.  C.  Austin  Co.) 

210.  Templet  Excavators. — The  efficiency  of  an  open  channel 
is  largely  dependent  on  the  uniformity  of  grade  and  smoothness 
of  the  sides  and  bottom.  Finished  cuts  cannot  be  made  with  the 
power  shovel  or  drag-line  machine  and  usually  these  must  be 
followed  up  by  scrapers  or  blade  graders  in  order  to  secure  uni- 
form and  smooth  surfaces.  As  the  construction  of  irrigation 
channels  is  generally  in  the  softer  and  looser  soils  such  as  sand, 
sandy  loam,  sandy  clay,  gravel,  etc.,  a  templet  machine  can  be 
used  to  advantage,  as  this  type  of  excavator  gives  finished  chan- 
nels with  the  desired  cross-section  and  side  slopes.  Experience 
shows  that  banks  cut  to  the  finished  slope  in  this  way  maintain 


324     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

their  original  condition  much  longer  than  when  unevenly  exca- 
vated by  other  types  of  excavator.  The  construction  of  finished 
surfaces  is  a  great  advantage  in  cases  where  the  channels  are  to 
be  lined  with  concrete.  See  Chapter  VIII.  A  typical  irrigation 
channel  built  by  a  templet  excavator  is  shown  in  Fig.  163.  This 
ditch  had  a  bottom  width  of  4  ft.,  an  average  depth  of  9  ft.  and 
side  slopes  of  1%  to  1. 

211.  Use  of  Templet  Excavators  in  Colorado. — Two  templet 
machines  were  used  during  the  season  of  1911  for  the  excavation 
of  irrigation  ditches  in  the  San  Luis  Valley  in  Colorado. 

The  ditches  excavated. had  6  ft.  and  8ft.  bottom  widths,  an 
average  depth  of  6  ft.  and  side  slopes  of  1%  to  1.  The  material 
varied  from  a  sandy  loam  to  a  gravel  stratum  filled  with  silt.  In 
the  former  material  the  average  excavation  was  750  cu.  yd.  for  a 
12-hr,  shift,  while  in  the  latter  material  the  digging  was  hard 
and  did  not  average  over  500  cu.  yd.  per  shift. 

The  following  table  gives  the  average  cost  of  operation  for  a 
12-hr,  shift: 

1  operator $4 . 00 

1  fireman 3 . 00 

1  trackman 1 . 50 

1  man  and  team   on  track 4.25 

1  man  and  team  on  water  wagon 4 . 25 

1  cook 1 . 00 

Coal  @  $4.50  per  ton  on  cars 6.00 

Boarding  supplies 2 . 00 

Oil 1.00 

Repairs,  cable,  chain,  waste,  etc 1 . 00 

Total $28.00 

At  750  cu.  yd.  for  each  12-hr,  shift,  the  cost  of  operation 
would  be  3.73  cents  per  cubic  yard. 

Recently  (1915-1917),  three  templet  machines  have  been  used 
in  the  San  Luis  Valley,  Colorado,  for  the  construction  of  a  large 
number  of  irrigation  and  drainage  channels.  The  material  ex- 
cavated has  been  largely  a  loose  sandy  loam,  underlaid  by  gravel. 
The  ditches  were  built  with  a  bottom  width  of  8  ft.,  depths  vary- 
ing from  6  ft.  to  8  ft.  and  side  slopes  of  1%  to  1.  The  excavated 
material  was  deposited  on  both  sides  of  the  channel  with  an  8-ft. 
berm  on  each  side.  The  work  was  carried  on  in  two  10-hr, 
shifts,  five  men  in  the  day  crew  and  four  men  in  the  night  crew 


RECLAMATION  WORK  325 

(engineer,  fireman,  trackmen  and  teamster).  The  average  ex- 
cavation for  a  10-hr,  shift  varied  from  800  to  1000  cubic  yards. 
Each  machine  was  equipped  with  a  1-yd.  bucket,  cutting  in  both 
directions,  transversely.  The  machines  were  supported  on  track 
stringers,  one  on  each  side  of  the  channel  and  consisting  of  a 
heavy  timber  bolted  between  a  pair  of  channels. 

212.  Floating    Excavators. — The    maintenance    of    irrigation 
systems  involves  the  periodic  cleaning  out  of  ditches  and  canals. 
Some  form  of  floating  dredge  can  be  efficiently  used  for  this  clean- 
ing-out work.     The  reader  is  referred  to  Division  II,  Drainage 
Works  for  a  discussion  of  this  class  of  work  and  the  use  of  float- 
ing dredges. 

H.  DRAINAGE  WORKS 

213.  Scrapers. — The  various  forms  of  scrapers  are  not  well 
adapted  to  the  excavation  of  drainage  ditches,  especially  under 
wet,  heavy  soil  conditions.     The  author  has  known  of  instances 
where  the  slip  and  the  two-wheel  scraper  have  been  used  in  the 
construction  of  small  lateral  ditches  of  a  drainage  system.     But 
the  results  were  very  unsatisfactory  and  uneconomical,  and  the 
author  would  not  recommend  the  use  of  scrapers  except  where 
especially  favorable  soil  conditions  or  availability  of  other  equip- 
ment require  their  employment.     For  a  general  discussion  of 
the  use  of  scrapers  in  ditch  and  canal  construction  see  Art.  192, 
page  304. 

214.  Graders. — The  two-wheel  grader  can  be  efficiently  used 
for  the  construction  of  small  lateral  ditches  where  the  soil  is 
loose  and  soft  enough  to  be  easily  excavated.     The  presence  of 
roots,  stumps  or  boulders  in  a  soil  would  make  the  use  of  such  a 
machine  impracticable. 

The  four-wheel  grader  is  not  adapted  to  ditch  construction  and 
should  be  used  for  the  smoothing  and  grading  of  the  bottom  and 
side  slopes  of  a  canal.  The  Reclamation  grader  with  pivoted 
axles  is  the  best  type  of  machine  for  this  class  of  work.  However, 
in  heavy,  wet  or  soft  soils  the  blade  or  scraping  grader  cannot  be 
efficiently  used  in  ditch  construction. 

The  elevating  grader  can  be  efficiently  used  in  the  construction 
of  the  upper  sections  of  canals  and  lateral  ditches  with  a  bottom 
width  of  not  less  than  10  feet.  However,  soil  conditions  largely 
govern  the  satisfactory  use  of  this  machine,  as  wet,  heavy  soils 


326      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

or  soil  where  roots  and  boulders  abound  are  not  suitable  for  grader 
work. 

215.  Use  of  Two-wheel  Grader  in  Mississippi.— The  Twenti- 
eth Century  Grader  made  by  the  Baker  Manufacturing  Company, 
Chicago,  Illinois,  has    been   used   extensively   in    Mississippi, 
Louisiana,  and  Texas,  in  the  excavation  of  small  lateral  ditches. 
On  large  plantations  near  Greenville  and  Yazoo  City,  Mississippi, 
drainage  ditches,  having  a  bottom  width  of  2  ft.,  average  depth 
of  2  ft.  and  average  top  width  of  6  ft.,  have  been  constructed  with 
this  grader.     The  machine  was  pulled  by  four  mules  and  the  ser- 
vices of  two  men  were  required,  one  to  drive  the  mules  and  the 
other  to  operate  the  grader.     In  cases  where  the  excavation  was 
made  in  soft  soil  and  the  cut  was  uniform,  one  man  furnished 
all  the  labor  required.     The  average  day's  work  resulted  in  the 
constructiou  of  %  mile  of  ditch,  having  the  cross-section  noted 
above.     The  cost  of  construction  was  $4.00  per  day  or  about  3 
cents  per  rod. 

Another  form  of  two-wheel  machine  has  the  axles  pivoted  so 
that  the  wheels,  either  one  or  both  may  be  inclined  to  prevent 
the  lateral  motion  of  the  machine  on  an  inclined  surface  or  as  a 
result  of  the  side  thrust  of  the  blade. 

216.  Use  of  Elevating  Grader  in  South  Dakota.— From  August, 
1910  to  December,  1911,  three  lines  of  lateral  ditches,  having 
an  average  length  of  6  miles  each,  were  constructed  tributary 
to  the  Clay  Creek  Ditch  in  Clay  County,  South  Dakota.     The 
contract  required  the  excavation  of  ditches  having  bottom  widths 
of  3  ft.,  side  slopes  of  1  to  1  and  depths,  varying  from  3  ft.  to  7 
feet.     The  contract  price  was  10  cents  per  cubic  yard  for  exca- 
vated ditch  section  and  the  excavated  material  formed  into  a 
suitably  graded-up  road.     The  upper  section  of  the  ditches  was 
entirely  excavated  by  elevating  graders  drawn  by  traction  engines. 
The  graders  used  were  the  New  Era  Senior  and  the  Standard 
Western.     Hart-Parr    gasoline    engines    having    a    capacity  of 
45-25  tractive  horse  power  were  used.     An  average  of  800  cu.  yd. 
of  rather  stiff  loam  and  clay  were  excavated  in  a  14-hr,  day. 
About  60  gal.  of  kerosene  per  day  was  used  as  fuel  for  each  engine 
and  the  cost  of  labor  was  as  follows : 

1  engineer  for  engine,  $3 . 50  per  day  and  board 

1  operator  for  elevating  grader,  $3 . 00  per  day  and  board 

217.  Use  of  Elevating  Grader  in  Minnesota. — The  following 
description  of  the  use  of  an  elevating  grader  in  the  construction 


RECLAMATION  WORK  327 

of  a  drainage  ditch  is  taken  from  Bulletin  No.  110  of  the  North  west 
Experiment  Farm  of  the  University  of  Minnesota. 

The  machinery  of  the  grader  was  operated  by  a  12-h.p.  gasoline 
engine.  A  disc  plow  with  a  diameter  of  24  in.  and  set  at  an 
angle  of  about  5  in.  was  used  to  elevate  the  earth  on  a  30-in. 
belt.  The  elevator  had  a  length  of  22  ft.  with  a  maximum  ex- 
tension to  30  feet.  The  elevator  and  plow  are  supported  from  a 
steel  frame,  which  is  mounted  on  two  trucks,  the  front  truck 
having  a  wheel  width  of  6  ft.  and  the  rear  truck  a  wheel  width 
of  9><2  feet.  The  rear  wheel  on  the  elevator  side  had  a  tire  width 
of  20  in.  and  the  other  three  wheels  a  tire  width  of  10  inches. 

The  machine  was  drawn  by  16  horses,  4  in  the  lead  team  and 
6  in  each  of  the  front  and  rear  teams.  A  driver  was  used  for 
each  team  and  one  man  operated  the  elevating  machinery.  The 
time  of  turning  the  grader  averaged  1  minute.  The  average 
speed  of  the  machine  was  1.3  miles  per  hour  for  a  working  day  of 
10  hours.  The  average  fuel  consumption  was  12  gal.  of  gasoline 
per  10-hr,  day. 

It  was  found  that  the  minimum  cross-section  of  ditch,  which 
could  be  excavated  with  the  elevating  grader  was  one  having  a 
bottom  width  of  8  ft.,  a  depth  of  2.5  ft.  and  side  slopes  of  1  to  1. 
The  greater  the  bottom  width,  the  deeper  the  machine  can  ex- 
cavate, but  the  narrower  the  berm  becomes.  It  required  25  ft. 
clear  space  along  each  side  of  the  ditch  for  operation  and  a  length 
of  100  ft.  at  the  end  of  the  ditch  for  turning. 

On  a  level  stretch  with  a  length  of  three-fourths  of  a  mile  and 
where  the  earth  was  dry  and  free  from  obstruction,  an  average 
daily  excavation  of  1200  cu.  yd.  was  made.  Of  this  amount 
200  cu.  yd.  was  outside  of  the  required  cross-section  of  the  ditch, 
leaving  1000  cu.  yd.  of  pay  excavation. 

218.  Templet  Excavators. — The   templet   excavator   can   be 
efficiently  used  for  the  excavation  of  drainage  ditches  when  the 
soil  conditions  are  favorable.     It  is  not  suited  to  the  excavation 
of  very  wet  soil  or  where  trees,  stumps,  and  large  stones  abound. 
Some  recent  machines  have  been  equipped  with  caterpillar  trac- 
tors and  can  operate  on  wet  soils  by  commencing  at  the  outlet 
and  working  upstream.     See  Art.  73,  page  114.     See  Fig.  163. 

219.  Use  of  Templet  Excavator  in  Illinois. — One  of  these 
templet  excavators  was  used  in  the  construction  of  a  drainage 
ditch  in  southern  Illinois.     The  ditch  had  a  bottom  width  of  4 
ft.,  side  slopes  of  1J^  to  1,  an  average  depth  of  6  ft.,  and  a  length 


328     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

of  10,600  feet.  The  total  excavation  was  29,704  cu.  yd.  and  re- 
quired 45  working  days.  The  machine  was  dismantled,  hauled 
6  miles,  and  erected  for  this  job,  and  the  cost  for  this  complete 
removal  was  $499.56.  Following  is  a  table  of  the  operating  ex- 
penses for  this  work,  based  on  a  cubic  yard  of  material  excavated. 

OPERATING  EXPENSES  PER  CQBIC  YARD 

Superintendent $0. 00250 

Engineer    and   fireman 0 . 01434 

Moving    track 0 . 01575 

Coal 0.00880 

Repairs 0.00602 

Board    for  entire   crew. 0.00710 

Explosives    for   stump   removal 0 . 00440 


Total $0.05891 

The  excavator  was  dismantled,  hauled  4  miles  and  set  up  for 
the  next  job  at  a  cost  of  $756.00. 

The  soil  excavated  was  a  sandy  loam  underlaid  by  a  clay  sub- 
soil. The  soil  was  heavy  and  wet  but  not  swampy. 

220.  Use  of  Templet  Excavator  in  North  Dakota. — During 
the  summer  of  1906,  an  excavator,  very  similar  in  construction 
and  method  of  operation  to  the  Austin  excavator,  was  used  in 
Pembina  County,  North  Dakota.  This  machine  is  known  as 
the  Junkin  Ditcher,  and  consists  of  a  steel-framed  car,  thoroughly 
braced  and  trussed.  The  sides  of  the  car  are  supported  on  two 
trucks,  each  of  which  has  four  flanged  steel  wheels  which  run  on.a 
portable  track  laid  on  each  side  of  and  parallel  to  the  ditch  line. 
The  car  thus  straddles  the  ditch  and  moves  ahead  parallel  to  it. 
On  the  car  floor  is  placed  the  locomotive  type  boiler  and  the  ma- 
chinery, which  consists  of  a  double  engine  of  70  h.p.  for  operating 
the  excavating  machinery  and  a  double  engine  of  30  h.p.,  for 
operating  the  cutting  frame. 

At  the  rear  end  of  the  car  is  placed  a  large  triangular-shaped 
framework,  the  lower  end  of  which  is  made  like  a  templet  to  con- 
form to  the  sides  and  bottom  of  the  completed  ditch.  Around 
the  perimeter  of  each  half  of  this  frame  moves  a  bucket  belt, 
composed  of  two  chains  30  in.  apart  and  carrying  14  steel  buckets 
spaced  at  equal  distances.  These  buckets  have  cutting  edges 
which  are  bolted  to  the  sides  and  can  be  easily  removed  for  sharp- 
ening. The  chains  are  driven  toward  each  other  and  in  opposite 


RECLAMATION  WORK  329 

directions  by  means  of  cog  gearing  and  move  over  large  sheaves 
placed  at  the  vertices  of  the  frame.  The  frame  is  fed  downward 
by  a  screw  gearing.  As  the  bucket  chains  revolve,  the  buckets 
follow  each  other  along  the  bottom  of  the  excavation  and  then 
up  the  slopes,  each  one  removing  a  thin  slice  of  earth,  which  is 
carried  to  the  top  and  outer  end  of  the  frame,  where  as  the  bucket 
turns  about  the  sheave  and  starts  on  its  return  course,  the  earth 
falls  out  and  the  bucket  is  automatically  cleaned  by  a  stationary 
scraper.  As  the  earth  is  excavated  the  frame  is  gradually  lowered 
until  the  required  depth  is  reached.  This  is  shown  by  a  gradu- 
ated scale  on  the  frame.  Thus  a  strip  of  earth  30  in.  wide  is  ex- 
cavated to  the  finished  grade  line  of  the  proposed  ditch  and  the 
machine  then  moves  ahead  30  in.  and  another  strip  30  in.  wide 
is  excavated  and  so  on  until  a  section  30  ft.  long  has  been  dug. 
Then  the  machine  is  run  back  to  the  beginning  of  the  section 
and  the  car  is  moved  slowly  ahead  and  the  buckets  remove  the 
loose  dirt  and  give  the  cross-section  a  final  smpothing-up.  As 
the  two  bucket  chains  do  not  come  together  at  the  center  of  the 
bottom,  a  ridge  is  left  in  the  completed  ditch  about  18  in.  wide 
at  the  base,  and  12  in.  high,  but  this  does  not  present  a  serious 
objection,  as  the  flow  of  water  in  the  ditch  soon  levels  it.  If 
desired,  the  ridge  can  be  removed  by  moving  the  earth  to  one  side 
by  hand  as  the  excavator  proceeds  on  its  first  trip  and  this  sur- 
plus material  would  be  removed  during  the  second  passage  of  the 
excavator. 

The  track  is  made  in  30-ft.  sections  which  are  moved  ahead  of 
the  machine  by  a  team  of  horses,  as  fast  as  the  sections  of  excava- 
tion are  completed.  The  excavator  starts  at  the  outlet  of  a  ditch 
and  works  upstream,  the  excavating  being  done  on  the  down- 
stream side  of  the  car. 

The  labor  required  to  operate  a  Junkin  ditcher  consists  of  one 
operator,  who  controls  the  operation  of  the  excavator;  one  fireman 
and  one  oiler  to  feed  the  boiler  and  care  for  the  machinery;  a  man 
and  team  for  hauling  water  for  the  boiler  and  four  men  and  a  team 
to  move  the  track. 

An  average  amount  of  fuel  of  2  tons  of  coal  is  required  to 
run  the  machine  during  a  14-hr,  working  day. 

The  average  excavation  made  by  this  machine  during  a  33 
days'  run  of  14-hr,  per  day,  was  1449  cu.  yd.  or  about  100  cu. 
yd.  per  hour.  The  ditch  excavated  had  a  10-ft.  bottom,  side 
slopes  of  1^2  to  1  and  a  depth  varying  from  6  to  12  feet. 


330     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

A  5-ft.  berm  is  left  on  either  side  of  the  ditch  and  the  spoil  banks 
have  a  triangular  section  and  excavated  material  is  deposited  in 
them  in  a  finely  divided  condition. 

The  excavator  has  a  total  weight  of  60  tons  and  is  made  in 
sections  so  that  it  can  be  easily  and  readily  assembled  or  disman- 
tled. The  boiler  is  the  only  part  of  the  machine  which  cannot 
be  loaded  on  to  an  ordinary  wagon.  It  is  said  that  the  disman- 
tling and  loading  upon  wagons  can  be  accomplished  by  8 
men  in  2%  days  and  set  up  by  the  same  crew  in  5  days. 

221.  Wheel  Excavators. — The  wheel  excavator  is  the  most 
practical  machine  for  the  construction  of  small  open  ditches, 
especially  in  reclamation  work,  where  a  true  grade  and  smooth 
side  slopes  are  necessary.     The  small  laterals  of  drainage  and 
irrigation  systems  run  full  during  a  small  part  of  the  year,  and 
they  tend  to  fill  up  with  silt,  debris  and  vegetation.     These 
obstructions  greatly  impair  the  efficiency  of  the  channel,  and 
hence  the  desirability,  especially  in  small  waterways  to  secure  a 
true  cross-section. 

222.  Use  of  Wheel  Excavator  in  Florida.1 — A  wheel  excavator 
was  used  during  December,  1913  and  January,  1914  in  the  ex- 
cavation of  drainage  ditches  in  the  Everglades.     The  machine 
weighed  37  tons  and  was  operated  by  a  45-h.p.  gasoline  engine. 
Caterpillar  tractors  were  used  to  support  the  rear  of  the  machine 
containing  the  excavating  equipment,   and  a   bearing  on  the 
ground  of  about  350  Ib.  per  square  foot  was  obtained.     The 
front  part  of  the  machine  was  extended  and  elevated  to  support 
a   cabin   which  furnished  the  living  quarters  for  8  men.     An 
independent  electrical  equipment  furnished  light  for  the  living 
quarters  and  for  a  searchlight,  which  made  night  work  possible. 

The  machine  cut  a  ditch  2%  ft.  wide  on  bottom,  9  ft.  wide  on 
top  and  5  ft.  deep  at  an  average  speed  of  8  ft.  per  minute  or 
480  cu.  yd.  per  hour.  The  maximum  record  was  1  mile  of 
ditch  in  10  hr.  or  528  cu.  yd.  per  hour.  The  average  soil  was 
sand  and  muck. 

During  December,  1913,  about  43,630  cu.  yd.  of  material  was 
excavated  at  a  cost  of  $0.0287  per  cubic  yard,  including  over- 
head expense,  fixed  charges  and  cost  of  clearing.  During  the 
first  23  days  of  January,  1914,  the  records  showed  an  output  of 
58,630  cu.  yd.  of  sand  and  muck  at  an  average  cost  of  $0.0240 
per  cubic  yard. 

1  Abstracted  from  Engineering  Record,  February  7,  1914. 


RECLAMATION  WORK  331 

223.  Dry-land  Dredge. — One  of  the  most  useful  of  the 
smaller  power  machines  is  the  dry-land  dredge  which  operates 
on  the  shovel  principle  and  is  built  to  span  the  channel  and  work 
upstream.  The  dredges  are  built  in  sizes  varying  from  14  ft. 
to  30  ft.  gage,  and  are  equipped  with  ^-yd.  to  1-yd.  dippers 
and  kerosene  engines  of  25  h.p.  to  40  h.p.  capacity. 

The  machine  travels  on  grooved  wheels  under  each  corner 
of  the  platform,  moving  along  a  track  consisting  of  a  single  rail 
along  each  berm.  The  operations  are  governed  by  four  cables; 
the  hoisting  cable,  attached  to  the  bail  of  the  dipper;  the  backing 
cable,  attached  to  the  rear  of  the  dipper;  the  swing  cable,  and  the 


FIG.  164. — Land  dredge  excavating  small  drainage  ditch.     (Bay  City  Dredge 

Works.) 

hauling  cable.  Three  men  are  required  to  operate  the  machine; 
the  engineer,  and  two  laborers  for  moving  the  track  and  general 
work  around  the  machine. 

The  cost  of  operation  varies  from  $10.00  to  $15.00  per  10-hr, 
working  day.  One  machine,  operating  during  the  summer  of 
1913  in  Tuscola  County,  Michigan,  averaged  from  600  cu.  yd. 
to  900  cu.  yd.  of  loam  and  clay  per  10-hr,  day,  in  the  excavation 
of  a  drainage  ditch.  See.  Fig.  164.  The  machine  had  a  32-ft. 
gage,  a  39-ft.  boom  and  a  25-h.p.  engine,  which  consumed  about 
25  gal.  of  gasoline  per  day. 

224.  Scraper-bucket  Excavators. — The  scraper-bucket  excava- 
tor has  been  recently  adapted  to  the  various  phases  of  drainage 
reclamation  with  considerable  success.  The  use  of  caterpillar 


332      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

tractors  and  the  wide  latitude  of  operations  afforded  by  the 
revolving  platform  and  drag-line  principle  allow  the  machine  to 
excavate  low,  wet  soils  to  a  considerable  depth.  The  drag-line 
excavator  can  handle  almost  any  kind  of  soil  except  solid  rock 
but  is  not  efficient  in  the  removal  of  silt  and  soft  soils  which  wash 
easily.  The  operation  of  the  machine  is  also  greatly  retarded 
in  the  excavation  of  soils  where  obstructions  such  as  stumps, 
roots  and  large  boulders  occur  in  quantity.  See  Chapter  VII. 

225.  Use  of  Drag-line  Excavator  in  South  Dakota. — During 
the  latter  part  of  the  year  1911,  a  2j^-cu.  yd.  bucket,  drag-line 
excavator  was  used  in  the  excavation  of  a  section  of  ditch  in  the 
lower  Vermilion  River  Valley,  Clay  County,  South  Dakota.  The 
cross-section  excavated  had  a  bottom  width  of  20  ft.,  average 
depth  of  8  ft.,  and  side  slopes  of  1  to  1.  The  material  excavated 
was  loam  and  clay,  there  being  an  alluvial  deposit  of  about  6 
ft.  of  loam  underlaid  with  yellow  clay. 

The  total  working  time  was  148  days  of  22  hr.  each;  there  be- 
ing two  shifts  of  about  11  hr.  each.  The  total  amount  of  ex- 
cavation was  222,494  cu.  yd.,  or  an  average  daily  rate  of  1503 
cu.  yd.  and  an  average  hourly  rate  of  68  cubic  yard. 

A   tabulated   list   of   operating   expenses   is   given   below: 

Labor: 

Operator $125 . 00  per  month 

2  cranesmen   @  $100.00 200.00  per  month 

4  laborers  @  $50.00 200.00  per  month 

1  teamster 50 . 00  per  month 

1  cook 35 . 00  per  month 


Total  cost  of  labor $3060. 00 

Cost  of  labor  per  cubic  yard  excavated 1 . 38  cents 

Fuel: 

15,444.8  gal.  of  gasoline  @  12.4  cents $1915. 15 

Cost  of  fuel  per  cubic  yard  excavated 0 . 86  cent 

Cable: 

First  quality  steel  wire  rope,  %  in.,  for  hoisting 
and  swinging  cables,  and  \Y±  in.,  for 
drag-line  cable. 

Total  cost  of  wire  rope $978 . 87 

Cost  of  wire  rope  per  cubic  yard  excavated 0 . 44  cent 


RECLAMATION  WORK  333 

Repairs  and  Renewals: 

Bucket  bailers,  friction  blocks,  sheaves,  etc. 

Total  cost  of  repairs  and  renewals $845 . 93 

Cost  of  repairs  and  renewals  per  cubic  yard 

excavated 0 . 38  cent 

Board  and  Lodging: 

Total  cost  of  board  and  lodging  of  9  men  for 

full  time  of  148  days $561 .81 

Cost  of  board   and  lodging  per  cubic   yard 

excavated 0 . 25  cent 

Miscellaneous: 

Livery,  horse  keep,  hardware,  lumber,  oil, 
grease,  waste,  freight,  express,  etc.,  etc.  (not 
including  general  office  expenses,  deprecia- 
tion, insurance  and  interest  on  investment) . 

Total  cost  .of  miscellaneous $2,078.72 

Cost  of  miscellaneous  per  cubic  yard  excavated 0 .93  cent 

Total  amount  of  operating  expenses $9,440.48 

Cost  of  operating  excavator  per  working  day .  $63 . 79 

Cost  of  operating  excavator  per  cubic  yard 

excavated 4 . 24  cents 

Initial  cost  of  excavator,  moving,  setting  up, 

taking  down,  etc $10,500. 00 

Contract  price  for  work,  per  cubic  yard 7  cents 

The  drag-line  excavator  was  made  by  the  Monighan  Machine 
Co.  of  Chicago,  111.,  and  used  a  50-h.p.  Otto  gasoline  engine 
for  power.  The  boom  has  a  length  of  60  ft.  and  the  2^-cu.  yd. 
scraper  bucket  was  of  the  Martinson  type. 

226.  Use  of  Drag-line  Excavators  in  Florida. — During  the 
years  1911,  1912  and  1913,  a  large  outlet  canal  was  excavated  by 
four  drag-line  excavators.  The  work  was  locted  near  Sebastian 
on  the  east  coast  of  Florida  and  the  material  excavated  was  sand 
and  shell  marl.  The  ditch  or  canal  was  4J£  miles  long,  had  a 
bottom  of  50  ft.,  depth  varying  from  10  to  18  ft.  and  side  slopes 
of  2  to  1.  Berms  of  20  ft.  were  left  along  the  sides  of  the  ditch. 

The  four  excavators  each  had  a  bucket  capacity  of  1J^  cu.  yd. 
and  a  boom  length  of  70  feet.  The  excavators  were  of  standard 
make  and  used  complete  steam  equipments.  The  machines 
worked  in  pairs  on  opposite  sides  of  the  canal  and  excavated 
to  a  fairly  uniform  grade  and  even  side  slopes. 


334      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

During  the  five  months  from  May  to  November,  1911  (inclu- 
sive), the  four  excavators  together  excavated  on  the  average, 
111,210  cu.  yd.  per  month  of  27,800  cu.  yd.  for  each  excavator 
per  month.  Two  shifts,  of  10  hr.  each  per  day,  were  worked, 
and  the  average  excavation  per  machine  for  each  shift  was  620 
cubic  yards.  The  total  yardage  excavated  during  the  year  1911 
was  1,023,662  cu.  yd.,  one  machine  working  12  months,  two  ma- 
chines working  11  months,  three  machines  working  10  months 
and  four  machines  working  9  months. 

The  entire  labor  organization  when  the  four  machines  were 
working  together  was  as  follows: 

1  Superintendent  of  works,  1  Assistant  blacksmith, 

1  Master  mechanic,  2  Pump  men, 

9  Operators,  3  Teamsters  (6 mules)  (1  horse), 

4  Roller  gang  foremen,  2  Cooks, 

32  Laborers  in  roller  gangs  (negroes),  1  Yard  man, 

8  Firemen  (negroes),  2  Dynamite  men, 

1  Oiler,  7  General  laborers  (negroes). 

1  Blacksmith, 

The  fuel  used  was  pine  wood,  which  had  been  partially  seasoned.     About 
two  cords  of  wood  were  used  for  each  excavator  per  shift. 
The  following  table  gives  a  brief  statement  of  the  cost  of  operation : 

Operating  costs $67,645 . 19 

Board  and  lodging 6,137.85 

Repairs  and  renewals 7,231 . 02 

Stable  unkeep 1,527.94 


Total $82,542.00 

Average  cost  of  excavation,  (based  on  a  total 

excavation  of  1,023,662  cu.  yd.). . .  8.05  cents  per  cu.  yd. 
The  above  estimate  does  not  include  depreciation  or  overhead  charges. 

227.  Floating-dipper  Dredges. — The  floating-dipper  dredge  is 
the  most  universally  used  type  of  excavator  for  drainage  re- 
clamation work.  In  the  heavily  timbered  and  swamp  lands  of 
the  south  and  middle  west,  the  dipper  dredge  has  proved  to  be 
the  only  successful  machine  for  ditch  and  canal  excavation. 
The  direct  prying  action  of  the  dipper  is  necessary  for  the  removal 
of  roots  and  stumps,  and  the  power  of  a  dredge  is  very  often  gov- 
erned by  the  character  and  magnitude  of  this  class  of  work  rather 
than  by  the  purely  excavation  requirements.  Experience 
has  proved  that  the  smaller  lateral  drainage  ditches  can  be  dug 


RECLAMATION  WORK  335 

more  economically  by  a  small  floating-dipper  dredge  even  when 
it  is  necessary  to  excavate  a  channel  50  to  100  per  cent,  larger 
than  required  in  order  to  float  the  machine.  The  unit  cost 
of  excavation  with  a  dipper  dredge  decreases  with  the  increase 
in  the  size  of  the  machine  and  the  channel,  up  to  a  cross-sectional 
area  of  about  700  square  feet.  The  limiting  size  of  channel, 
which  a  floating-dipper  dredge  can  construct  is  one  having  about 
1200  square  feet.  See  Chapter  XII. 

228.  Use  of  Floating-dipper  Dredge  in  Colorado. — A  standard 
make  of  floating-dipper  dredge  was  used  during  the  year  1911  in 
the  cleaning  out  and  enlarging  of  a  large  supply  canal  on  an  irriga- 
tion project  in  eastern  Colorado. 

The  material  excavated  was  a  sandy  loam  and  an  average  of 
373.5  cu.  yd.  were  excavated  in  each  100-ft.  length  of  canal. 
A  total  excavation  of  394,387  cu.  yd.  was  made  in  a  total  canal 
length  of  20  miles  and  during  187  actual  operating  days.  The 
dredge  crews  were  on  duty  268  days.  The  dredge  was  operated 
in  two  shifts  of  10  hr.  each,  and  1  hour  per  day  was  spent  in 
oiling  and  cleaning  the  machinery. 

Screened  pea  coal  from  New  Mexico  was  used  as  fuel  and  water 
for  the  boiler  was  pumped  directly  from  the  canal.  The  depo- 
sition of  mud  and  the  formation  of  scale  resulting  from  the  use 
of  this  water  caused  considerable  boiler  trouble.  A  feed  water 
heater  was  not  used,  although  the  purification  of  the  water  be- 
fore feeding  it  to  the  boiler  would  doubtless  have  saved  time  and 
expense. 

The  dredge  had  a  wooden  hull,  75  ft.  long  and  24  ft.  wide.  The 
boom  had  a  length  of  50  ft.  and  the  dipper  had  a  capacity  of 
cu.  yd.  Marion  anchors  or  bank  spuds  were  used. 

The  cost  of  operation  for  the  year  is  as  follows: 


Labor: 


1  head  engineer  or  runner $120.00  per  month 

1  runner 1 10 . 00  per  month 

2  cranesmen 55 . 00  per  month 

2  firemen 45 . 00  per  month 

2  deck  hands 40 . 00  per  month 

1  teamster 40 . 00  per  month 

1  cook 50 . 00  per  month 

Total  cost  of  labor  for  operating  dredge..  $6243 . 70 

Cost  of  labor  per  cubic  yard  excavated .0.0157  cent 


336     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

Fuel: 

1,276 . 65  tons  coal  @  $3 . 175  per  ton $4053 . 36 

Cost  per  fuel  per  cubic  yard  excavated 0 . 0103  cent 

Repairs  and  Maintenance  of  Machinery: 

Total  cost  of  cables,  repairs  and  renewals,  of 

machinery $3894 . 67 

Cost  of  repairs  and  renewals  per  cubic  yard 

excavated 0 . 0098  cent 

Miscellaneous: 

Total  cost  of  miscellaneous  supplies,  oil,  waste 

grease,  etc $692 . 81 

Cost  of  miscellaneous  supplies  per  cubic  yard 

excavated 0 . 0012  cent 

Expense  of  Floating  Dredge:1 

Cost  of  retaining  water  in  canal  to  keep  the 

dredge  afloat $369.24 

Cost  of  floating  dredge  per  cubic  yard 0 . 0009  cent 

Total  cost  of  operating  dredge  for  187  days . .  $15,253 . 78 

Cost  of  operation  per  day 81 . 57 

Cost  of  operation  per  cubic  yard  excavated 0 . 0372  cent 

Cost  of  dredge  and  house  boat $16500 . 00 

The  following  general  and  overhead  expenses  were  included  in  this  work. 

Engineering,  supervision  and  office  work $1859. 10 

Team  work  in  building  up  spoil  bank  and  con- 
structing road  on  the  top  for  20  miles  @ 

$236.08 $4721.75 

Removing  and  replacing  10  highway  and  1 

railroad  bridges $837 . 78 

Right  of  way  and  legal  expenses $190 . 42 

Interest  on  investment  (8  per  cent,  of  $16,500)  $1320 . 00 
Depreciation  (20  per  cent,  of  $16,500) $3300 . 00 


Total  amount  of  general  expenses $12,229.05 

Amount     of     general    expenses    per 

cubic  yard  excavated .  .  0 . 0310 

Total    cost   of   work  per  cubic  yard 

excavated 0.0682 

1  In  cleaning  out  a  canal  it  is  often  necessary  to  maintain  a  dam  of  excavated 
material  in  front  of  the  dredge  to  provide  a  sufficient  depth  of  water  to  float 
the  dredge.  In  crossing  another  and  exis  ting  stream,  channel  or  waterway,  a 
dam  or  dike  must  be  constructed  on  the  down-stream  side  to  prevent  the 
loss  of  water  through  the  original  channel. 


RECLAMATION  WORK  337 

229.  Use  of  Floating-dipper  Dredge  in  Florida/ — Two  floating- 
dipper  dredges  have  been  used  recently  in  the  construction  of  the 
large  outlet  canal  located  near  Sebastian,  Florida.     The  dredges 
were  used  (1911-13)  to  excavate  the  sections  of  the  main  canal 
with  dense  clay  sub-soil,  and  the  larger  lateral  ditches. 

The  larger  dredge  had  an  all  steel  hull  100  ft.  long  and  33  ft. 
wide,  a  70-ft.  boom  and  a  2J^-cu.  yd.  dipper.  The  smaller 
dredge  had  a  wooden  hull  70  ft.  long  and  18-ft.  wide,  bank  spuds, 
a  50-ft.  boom  and  a  lj^-cu.  yd.  dipper. 

The  average  monthly  excavation  for  the  two  dredges  was 
about  100,000  cubic  yards.  The  cost  of  excavation  (not  includ- 
ing overhead  charges  and  depreciation)  averaged  4J4  cents  per 
cubic  yard.  Partially  seasoned  pine  was  used  for  fuel  and  an 
average  of  two  cords  per  shift  of  10  hr.,  or  103  cords  per  month 
of  26  days,  were  consumed. 

230.  Use  of  Floating-dipper  Dredge  in  South  Dakota. — In  the 
construction  of  the  Clay  Creek  Ditch  in  Clay  and  Yankton 
Counties,  South  Dakota,  during  the  years  1908,  1909  and  1910, 
one  of  the  two  floating-dipper  dredges  used  made  such  uniform 
progress  that  an  accurate  cost  record  was  kept  of  its  operation. 

This  dredge  has  a  wooden  hull,  87  ft.  long,  30  ft.  wide,  and 
6  ft.  deep.  The  framework  of  the  hull  was  composed  of  54  keel- 
sons, 8  in.  X  10  in.  X  30  ft.  long  and  spaced  about  3  ft.  3  in.  on 
centers.  The  side  and  end  verticals  or  posts  were  6-in.  X  6-in. 
Douglas  fir  timbers,  6  ft.  long  and  spaced  6  ft.  in  the  clear.  The 
sides,  ends  and  bottom  were  formed  of  3-in.  yellow  pine  planking. 
The  deck  was  made  of  2-in.  yellow  pine  planking.  All  main 
timbers  were  strongly  bolted  together  and  the  planking  was 
spiked  to  the  framework.  The  joints  of  the  sides,  ends  and 
bottom  were  well  calked  with  three  strings  of  oakum,  and  then 
hot  tar  was  applied  until  the  joints  were  filled  flush  with  the  outer 
surface. 

Marion  anchors  or  bank  spuds,  attached  to  the  head  block 
of  the  A-frame  were  used.  These  anchors  were  made  of  14-in.  X 
14-in.  oak  timbers  sliding  in  steel  boxings,  whose  lower  ends 
supported  heavy  platforms  about  6  ft.  square.  The  A-frame 
had  a  height  of  44  ft.  and  was  built  of  two  14-in.  X  16-in.  timbers 
of  Douglas  fir.  The  rear  spud  was  single-oak  timber  10  in.  square. 
The  boom  had  a  length  of  66  ft.,  was  5  ft.  deep  in  the  center, 
had  8-in.  X  8-in.  fir  flanges  and  a  web  of  5-in.  yellow  pine.  It 
was  made  in  two  equal  sections.  The  dipper  handle  was  made  of 


338     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


two  oak  timbers,  10-in.  X  14-in.  and  having  a  length  of  38  feet. 
Steam  was  furnished  by  a  60-h.p.  boiler  of  the  locomotive  type. 
The  main  engine  was  built  by  the  Marion  Steam  Shovel  Com- 
pany, and  was  equipped  with  two  9-in.  X  11-in.  cylinders.  The 
hoisting  drum  had  a  diameter  of  30  in.  and  the  backing  drum 
18  inches.  The  diameter  of  the  frictions  was  twice  that  of  the 
drums.  A  separate  swinging  engine  was  used,  and  was  equipped 
with  two  drums  having  a  diameter  of  18  inches.  A  3-in.  chain  con- 
nected the  drums  with  a  steel  swinging  circle  having  a  diameter 
of  17  ft.  4  inches.  A  small  dynamo  was  belt  connected  to  the 
swinging  engine  and  furnished  light  for  the  night  operation  of  the 
dredge.  Water  was  at  first  pumped  directly  into  the  boiler  from 
the  ditch,  but  as  the  water  contained  so  much  scale-forming  im- 
purities, it  was  found  necessary  to  install  a  feed  water  heater 
and  purifier,  to  purify  the  water  before  it  was  used  in  the  boiler. 
The  following  table  gives  the  amount  of  excavation  made  by 
this  dredge  during  the  months  when  operation  was  uniform  and 
uninterrupted  by  climatic  conditions,  floods,  etc. 


Month 

Progress, 

Estimated 
excavation, 

Actual 
excavation, 

Surplus 
excavation, 

ft. 

cu.  yd. 

cu.  yd. 

cu.  yd. 

August,  1908  

5750 

54,227 

58,708 

4481 

September,  1908  

4600 

54,395 

60,443 

6048 

October,  1908  

6350 

65,383 

74,753 

9370 

November,  1908  

6250 

.    62,108 

67,279 

5171 

December,  1908  

5750 

60,805 

63,894 

3089 

April,  1909. 

6700 

74,287 

79,310 

5023 

May,  1909  

4800     ' 

69,536 

75,401 

5865 

The  "surplus  excavation "  shows  that  the  dredge  excavated 
outside  of  the  side  slopes  of  1  to  1  and  the  bottom  grade,  which 
were  required  by  the  specification  and  established  by  the  side 
slope  and  grade  stakes.  This  " surplus  excavation"  is  neces- 
sitated by  the  fact  that  the  dredge  cannot  excavate  a  true  1  to  1 
side  slope  or  uniformly  to  grade.  The  contractor  is  not  paid 
for  this  extra  work,  but  only  for  the  excavation  within  the  bound- 
aries established  by  the  stakes  and  the  specification.  During 
the  seven  months,  as  recorded  in  the  table  above,  the  average 
actual  monthly  excavation  was  68,541  cu.  yd.,  the  average  esti- 
mated monthly  excavation  was  62,963  cu.  yd.,  making  an  average 
monthly  surplus  of  5578  cu.  yd.  or  about  9  per  cent.  During 


RECLAMATION  WORK  339 

August,  1908,  the  dredge  was  working  in  the  upper  section  of  the 
ditch,  whose  cross-section  was  a  base  of  20  ft.,  average  depth  of 
9^  ft.  and  side  slopes  of  1  to  1.  From  September,  1908,  to  De- 
cember, 1908,  inclusive,  the  dredge  was  excavating  a  ditch  the 
cross-section  of  which  was  a  base  of  25  ft.,  an  average  depth  of 
10  ft.  and  side  slopes  of  1  to  1.  During  April  and  May,  1909, 
the  dredge  worked  in  the  ditch  where  the  bottom  width  was  30 
ft.,  average  depth  of  10^  ft.  and  side  slopes  of  1  to  1.  The 
material  excavated  was  loam  to  a  depth  of  from  3  to  6  ft.  and 
the  remainder  yellow  clay. 

The  work  was  carried  on  in  two  shifts  of  10  hr.  each  for  6  days 
a  week.  Sunday  was  spent  in  making  small  repairs,  cleaning 
and  oiling  the  machinery,  rolling  and  replacing  boiler  tubes,  etc. 

The  following  schedule  gives  the  cost  of  labor  employed  in  the 
operation  of  the  dredge: 

Labor: 

2  engineers  or  runners  @  $100.00  per  month.  $200.00 

2  cranesmen  @  $75.00  per  month 150.00 

2  firemen  @  $60.00  permonth 120.00 

4  laborers  @  $50.00  per  month 200.00 

1  cook  @  $35.00  permonth 35.00 


Total  monthly  labor  cost $705 . 00 

Total  cost  of  labor  for  operating  dredge . .     $5641 . 29 

Cost  of  labor  per  cubic  yard  excavated 0.0123  cent 

Fuel: 

730  tons  of  coal  @  $6.50  per  ton $4748.52 

\  Cost  of  fuel  per  cubic  yard  excavated 0.0103  cent 

Repairs  and  Maintenance: 

Total  cost  of  cables,  bolts,  pins,  blocks,  sheaves, 

oil,    waste,    grease,    etc $2535 . 44 

Cost  of  repairs,  and  maintenance  per  cubic 

yard  excavated 0 . 0055  cent 

Board  and  Lodging: 

Total  cost  of  board  and  lodgings  for  10  men 

and  1  woman  cook  for  200  days $1417.03  ' 

Cost  of  board  and  lodging  per  cubic  yard 

excavated 0. 0038  cent 

Total  cost  of  operating  dredge  for  200  days. . .  $14,342.28 

Cost  of  operation  per  day 71.71 

Cost  of  operation  per  cubic  yard  excavated 0 . 0312  cent 

Initial  cost  of  dredge  (moving,  erection  and 

dismantling)    and    of    house   boat1 $8830.16 

1  The  cost  of  boiler  and  ongines  was  $6000 . 00. 


340     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

The  following  allowance  was  made  for  general  and  overhead  expenses. 

Supervision  and  general  office  expenses $2000.00 

Interest    on    investment     (8    per    cent,    of 

$8830.16) $706.41 

Depreciation  (20  per  cent,  of  $8830 .16) $1776 . 03 


Total  amount  of  general  expenses $4482 . 44 

Amount  of  general  expenses  per  cubic  yard 

excavated 0. 0097  cent 

Total  cost  of  work  per  cubic  yard  exca- 
vated   0 . 0409  cent 

Contract  price  for  excavation 0. 0800  cent 

231.  Ladder  Dredges. — The  ladder  dredge  is  not  adapted  to 
the  excavation  of  narrow  channels,  and  thus  is  not  an  efficient 
type  of  excavator  to  use  in  general  reclamation  work.     Ordinarily 
a  dipper  dredge  is  much  more  efficient  for  this  class  of  work.     In 
the  excavation  of  drainage  channels,  the  wet,  sticky  material 
clogs  the  buckets  and  the  spoil  conveyors,  and  occasionally  is  so 
soft  and  fluid  as  to  render  its  handling  and  disposition  in  the  spoil 
banks  a  difficult  matter.     Most  drainage  channels  require  the 
construction  and  maintenance  of  side  slopes  of  at  least  1  to  1  and 
these  are  difficult  to  construct  with  a  ladder  dredge;  requiring 
the  gradual  swinging  of  the  dredge  to  the  side  and  the  raising 
of  the  bucket  chain.     See  Chapter  XIII. 

232.  Use    of   Ladder   Dredge    in    Washington.— The  U.   S. 
Reclamation  Service  has  used  a  Bucyrus  ladder  dredge  on  the 
enlargement  of  the  Main  Canal  of  the  Sunnyside  Project  near 
Sunnyside,   Washington.     The  excavation  extended  from  mile 
0.228  to  mile  20.67 — making  a  total  length  of  canal  dredged 
of  20.342  miles.     The  average  distance  of  the  work  from  the 
railroad  station  was  2  miles. 

The  work  was  carried  on  in  two  shifts  from  December  1,  1909, 
to  June  19,  1910,  and  in  three  shifts  per  day  from  June  19,  1910, 
to  October  1,  1911.  The  character  of  the  material  excavated 
varied  from  loose  gravel  to  hard-pan.  At  about  mile  1,  the 
material  was  so  hard  that  explosives  were  necessary  to  assist  the 
hydraulic  giant  in  breaking  down  the  high  banks.  Blasting  was 
carried  on  from  this  point  to  the  end  of  the  work.  From  mile  13 
to  mile  20.67,  teams  were  employed  to  excavate  the  high  banks 
above  the  water  line.  Difficulty  was  experienced  in  disposing 
of  the  excavated  material  where  the  banks  were  high.  On 
fills  and  shallow  cuts  bulkheads  were  built  along  the  right- 


RECLAMATION  WORK 


341 


of-way  on  the  lower  bank  to  keep  the  wet  material  from  flowing 
into  adjoining  fields.  In  winter,  ice  hindered  the  progress  of 
the  work  to  a  considerable  extent. 

The  dredge  used  was  a  Bucyrus  ladder  dredge  equipped  with 
steam  power  and  a  3^-cu.  ft.  continuous  bucket  chain.  The  hull 
was  built  of  timber  with  a  length  of  82  ft.,  a  width  of  30  ft.,  a 
depth  of  6  ft.  6  in.  and  drew  5  ft.  of  water.  Steam  was  furnished 
by  two  locomotive  type  boilers,  44  in.  in  diameter  and  18  ft. 
long  and  having  a  rated  capacity  of  80  horse  power.  The  main 
drive  and  ladder  hoist  were  driven  by  an  8-in.  X  12-in.  double 
horizontal  engine  of  70  horse  power.  The  winch  machinery  for 
operating  the  spuds  and  swinging  the  dredge  was  driven  by  a 


'-    '  <  <  IIIIHI    •  .  •  r^. 

FIG.  165. — Ladder    dredge   excavating   irrigation    canal.     (Courtesy   of   U.    S. 
Reclamation  Service.) 

two-cylinder  6-in.  X  6  in.  double  horizontal  engine  of  20  horse 
power.  The  belt  conveyors  were  operated  by  two  7-in.  X  10-in. 
single-cylinder,  center-crank,  horizontal  engines  of  18  horse 
power.  A  No.  1  Hendy  hydraulic  giant  was  mounted  on  the  bow 
of  the  dredge  and  water  was  forced  through  it  by  a  two-stage, 
6-in.  centrifugal  pump  belted  to  a  10-in.  X  12-in.  single-cylinder 
upright  engine  of  80  horse  power.  This  giant  or  monitor  was 
used  to  remove  banks  above  the  water  level  and  beyond  the 
reach  of  the  buckets.  Two  belt  conveyors,  one  on  each  side  of 
the  dredge,  were  used  for  the  disposal  of  the  excavated  material. 
Each  conveyor  was  72  ft.  long  and  consisted  of  a  steel  frame- 
work supporting  a  7-ply  32-in.  rubber  conveying  belt.  Figure 
165  shows  the  dredge  in  operation. 


342      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


The  operating  force  consisted  of  8  men  and  4  horses.     The 
following  scale  of  wages  was  paid : 

Superintendent $7 . 50  per  day 

Operator 5 . 00  per  day 

Engineer 4 . 67  per  day 

Spudman 3 . 83  per  day 

Fireman 3 . 33  per  day 

Oiler 3.00  per  day 

Deckman 2 . 50  per  day 

Man  and  team 4 . 50  per  day 

TABLE  XX — COST  OF  CANAL  EXCAVATION  WITH  LADDER  DREDGE 


Item 

Total 
excavation, 
cu.  yd. 

Total  cost 

Cost  per 
cu.  yd. 

Excavation  

929  723 

' 

Labor,  dredge  

$26,960  63 

$0  029 

Labor,  spoil  banks  . 

31,159  06 

0  034 

Fuel  

33  043  07 

0  036 

Plant  maintenance.  .  .  . 

52,327  40 

0  057 

Plant  depreciation 

41  432  53 

0  045 

• 

Total  

$184  922  69 

$0  201 

Engineering  arid  administration  .  . 

28,154.41 

0.031 

Grand  total 

$213  077  10 

$0  232 

The  maximum  excavation  per  8-hr,  shift  was  1429  cubic  yards. 

The  average  excavation  per  8-hr,  shift  was  557.9  cubic  yards. 

The  maximum  excavation  per  week  was  17,644  cu.  yd.  for  the 
week  ending  June  28,  1911,  working  three  8-hr,  shifts. 

The  average  excavation  per  actual  working  hour  was  128.7 
cubic  yards.  The  per  cent,  of  lost  time  was  49,  made  up  of 
moving  as  10  per  cent,  and  of  repairs  and  miscellaneous  as  39 
per  cent. 

233.  Hydraulic  Dredges. — The  hydraulic  dredge  is  efficient 
in  the  excavation  of  soft  material  such  as  sand,  silt  and  loose  clay. 
However,  the  use  of  special  forms  of  cutters  permit  of  the  efficient 
excavation  of  hard  materials.  Until  recently  the  hydraulic 
dredge  has  not  been  successfully  used  on  reclamation  work  on 
account  of  the  difficulty  of  depositing  the  excavated  material 
in  restricted  spoil  bank  areas,  the  clogging  of  the  suction  pipes 
and  pumps  with  grass,  roots  and  other  debris,  and  the  limitations 


f 

RECLAMATION  WORK  343 

of  operation  as  to  the  excavation  of  relatively  narrow  channels 
with  sloping  banks.     See  Chapter  XIV. 

Hydraulic  dredges  for  canal  excavation  should  be  provided 
with  a  discharge  pipe  which  extends  laterally  either  side  of  the 
canal  to  a  point  50  ft.  from  the  side  of  the  dredge.  Valves  should 
be  placed  so  that  the  discharges  may  be  temporarily  closed  to 
pass  obstructions  or  intersecting  canals,  and  the  use  of  joints, 
open  at  the  bottom  near  the  end  of  the  discharge  pipes,  provide 
for  the  escape  of  heavy  material  which  forms  a  ridge  along  each 
side  of  the  canal.  See  Fig.  166.  The  use  of  large  suction  pumps, 


FIG.  166. — Hydraulic  dredge  excavating  a  drainage  canal. 

with  suction  pipes  not  less  than  12  in.  in  diameter  will  largely 
overcome  the  difficulty  from  clogging. 

The  hydraulic  dredge  can  be  used  most  efficiently  in  coopera- 
tion with  a  dipper  dredge,  the  latter  being  used  to  form  along 
each  side  of  the  canal,  a  barrier  behind  which  the  former  machine 
may  deposit  its  fluid  discharge. 

Examples  of  the  methods  and  cost  of  operation  of  the  hydraulic 
dredge  will  be  given  under  Division  III,  Flood  Prevention  and 
Flood  Protection  Works. 

234.  Grab -bucket  Dredges. — The  gravity  swing  grab-bucket 
dredge  equipped  with  vertical  spuds  and  a  long  boom  is  a  very 
economical  type  of  excavator  to  use  in  canal  excavation  through 


344     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

loose  and  soft  soils  where  stumps  and  roots  are  not  prevalent. 
The  orange-peel  bucket  should  be  used  in  muck,  soft  clay  and  for 
the  pulling  of  stumps  and  roots.  The  clam-shell  bucket  is  best 
adapted  to  the  handling  of  dense  sand  and  gravel.  By  careful 
manipulation  of  the  bucket  so  that  it  shall  be  carefully  loaded 
and  tightly  closed  before  raising,  the  orange-peel  bucket  may  be 
used  very  successfully  for  the  excavation  of  muck  and  silt. 

235.  Use  of  Grab -bucket  Dredge  in  Louisiana.1 — During  1913 
and  1914,  a  lJ/2-yd.  orange-peel  dredge  was  used  in  the  excava- 
tion of  drainage  channels  in  St.  Bernard  and  Plaquemines  par- 
ishes, Louisiana.  The  dredge  had  a  hull  of  yellow  pine  34  ft. 
X  79  ft.,  carrying  a  80-h.p.  boiler,  a  Worthington  condenser 
and  10-in.  X  12-in.  dredge  engines.  The  boom  was  of  steel 
and  had  a  length  of  75  feet.  The  material  excavated  was  light 
muck  overlying  a  soft  clay,  with  occasional  pockets  of  sand; 
The  following  statement  is  based  on  an  operating  period  of 15J^ 
months.  The  fuel  used  was  oil  until  the  cost  reached  $1.25 
per  barrel  and  then  coal  at  $4.00  per  ton. 

Operating  Expenses: 

Labor  (double  shift) $6,458. 64 

Fuel 4,776.09 

Main  hoisting  cables 1,011 .04 

Repairs  and  renewals 2,184 . 19 

Lubricating  oil 280.08 

Miscellaneous  supplies 357 . 36 

General  (including  board  of  crew,  operation  of 

gasoline  tenders,  etc.) 2,175 . 41 

Supplies  (estimated  from  vouchers) 1,200.00 


Total ' $18,442.81 

Miscellaneous  and  Overhead  Expenses: 

Office  and  engineering  expenses $3,050.00 

Interest  (estimated  at  5  per  cent.) 1,080 . 00 

Depreciation  (estimated  at  6  per  cent.) 1,300 . 00 

Interest   and   depreciation    (house   boat,    fuel, 

barges,  etc.) 600.00 

Insurance..  528.00 


Total $6,558.00 

Grand  total. $25,000.81 

Total  excavation 924,204  cu.  yd. 

Unit  cost $25,000.81  4-  924,204  =  $0.026 

1  Engineering  News,  April  30,  1914. 


RECLAMATION  WORK  345 

III.  FLOOD  PREVENTION  AND  FLOOD  PROTECTION  WORKS 

The  construction  of  flood  prevention  and  flood  protection 
works  consists  in  the  dredging  out  of  natural  channels,  the  ex- 
cavation of  artificial  channels  and  the  building  of  levees,  reser- 
voirs, dams,  etc.  The  use  of  various  types  of  excavators  in  the 
construction  of  these  works  will  be  discussed  in  the  following 
articles. 

236.  Scrapers. — The  various  types  of  scrapers  have  been  used 
in  levee  building  especially  along  the  great  streams  of  the  Middle 
West;  the  Mississippi,  the  Missouri  and  their  tributaries.     The 
scraper  is  especially  efficient  in  the  construction  of  earthen  levees 
and  dams  on  account  of  the  securing  of  a  uniform  distribution 
of  the  material  and  the  compacting  of  the  layers  by  the  continu- 
ous  movement   of   the   teams.     Experience  with  levees  under 
flood  conditions,  has  clearly  demonstrated  the  superior  density 
and  stability  of  the  scraper-built  structure  over  that  built  by  a 
large  power  machine.     However,  the  use  of  the  power  excavator 
is  clearly  more  efficient  and  economical  in  work  exceeding  the 
movement  of  more  than  50,000  cu.  yd.  of  material  and  the  dis- 
tribution and  compacting  may  be  secured  by  the  use  of  drags  and 
grooved  rollers. 

237.  Use  of  Fresno  Scrapers  in  Arizona. — The  construction 
of  the  levee  below  the  Colorado  River  break,  in  1907,  was  made 
with  four-horse  Fresno  scrapers.     Muck  ditches  were  constructed 
with  6-ft.  to  10-ft.  bases  and  with  2^  to  1  slopes,  and  then  levees 
with  10-ft.  top  width  and  3  to  1  slopes  were  built.     The  material 
which  was  an  adobe  or  dark  clay  and  loam,  was  taken  from  the 
borrow  pits  on  the  land  side.     These  pits  were  made  with  a  40- 
ft.  embankment  berm,  a  depth  of  4  ft.  on  the  inside  and  a  slope 
of  1  in  50  to  the  outside.     At  intervals  of  400  or  500  ft.  were  left 
checks  17^2  ft.  wide,  across  the  pits.     About  150  Fresno  scrapers 
and  600  head  of  stock  were  employed  continuously  on  this  work. 
During  the  month  of  February,  1907,  270,000  cu.  yd.  were  moved 
and  an  average  of  7000  cu.  yd.  were  moved  per  day. 

238.  Use  of  Wheel  Scrapers  in  Missouri. — A  levee  was  con- 
structed in  1916,  in  the  St.  JohnLevee  and  Drainage  District  near 
New  Madrid,  Missouri  with  two-wheel  scrapers.     The  levee  was 
about  10  miles  long,  had  a  crown  width  of  8  ft.,  a  maximum  height 
of  18  ft.  and  side  slopes  of  1  to  3.     An  allowance  of  15  per  cent,  was 
made  for  shrinkage.     From  19  to  28  scrapers  of  %  yd.  capacity 


346      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

were  hauled  by  two-mule  teams,  and  a  three-mile  snatch  team 
was  used  in  loading.  Two  plows  hauled  by  two-mule  teams  were 
used  for  the  loosening  of  the  soil.  The  labor  crew  was  composed 
of  a  foreman  and  dumpman  at  the  dump,  a  loader  for  each  three 
scrapers  at  the  borrow  pit,  and  a  driver  for  each  scraper  and  plow. 
About  30,000  to  40,000  cu.  yd.  of  material  were  handled  per 
month,  based  on  a  12-hr,  working  day. 

239.  Use  of  Fresno  and  Wheel  Scrapers  in  Wyoming.1 — The 
Whalen  dike  of  the  North  Platte  project  of  the  U.  S.  Reclamation 
Service  was  built  in  1907  and  1908  to  divert  the  flow  of  the  North 
Platte  River  into  the  Interstate  Canal,  Wyoming.  The  dike  is 
about  1600  ft.  in  length,  11  ft.  wide  on  top,  with  an  average  height 
of  10  ft.  and  side  slopes  of  2^2  to  1.  The  construction  of  the  em- 
bankment involved  the  movement  of  about  35,000  cu.  yd.  of 
earth  from  a  borrow  pit  on  the  upstream  side,  a  minimum  dis- 
tance varying  from  100  ft.  to  500  feet.  The  excavated  material 
was  placed  in  layers  varying  from  6  in.  to  12  in.  in  thickness  and 
was  transported  by  two-wheel  scrapers. 

The  whole  embankment  was  faced  with  gravel,  the  thickness 
on  the  top  and  downstream  slopes  being  1ft.  and  on  the  upstream 
slope  2  feet.  About  6,040  cu.  yd.  of  gravel  were  moved  for  a  total 
average  haul  of  about  2620  feet.  The  gravel  was  loaded  into  four- 
horse  wagons  with  slat  bottoms,  from  two-wheel  scrapers  dump- 
ing through  a  trap.  The  material  was  dumped  from  the  wagons 
onto  the  embankment  and  spread  by  a  Fresno  scraper  and  a  hand 
shovel. 

Table  XXI  gives  the  cost  of  the  work  based  on  the  following 
labor  schedule: 

Foreman,  35  to  40  cents  per  hour. 

Laborers,  22^  to  25  cents  per  hour. 

Teams,  10  cents  per  hour. 

Two-horse  teams  on  gravel,  40  to  45  cents  per  hour. 

Three-horse  teams  and  drivers,  50  to  55  cents  per  hour. 

Four-horse  teams  and  drivers,  60  to  65  cents  per  hour. 

1  Abstracted  from  Reclamation  Record. 


RECLAMATION  WORK  347 

TABLE  XXI. — COST  OF  CONSTRUCTION  OF  WHALEN  DIKE 


Distribution 

35,000  cu.  yd.  earth 

6,040  cu.  yd.  gravel 

Total 

Total  cost 

Unit  cost 

Total  cost 

Unit  cost 

Labor 

$7695 
400 
150 

$0.219 
0.001 
0.004 

$5281 

135 
120 

$0.874 
0.022 
0.020 

$12,976 
535 
270 

Plant  depreciation 
Superintendence  . 

Total       .    .  . 

$8245 

$0  .  224 

$5536 

$0.916 

$13,781 

240.  Graders. — The  blade  or  scraping  grader  is  used  in  con- 
junction with  other  forms  of  excavators  in  the  construction  of 
canals  and  embankments  for  the  smoothing  and  grading  of  the 
surface   slopes.     In   the   construction   of   earth  embankments, 
the  blade-grader  is  generally  used  to  distribute  and  spread  the 
material. 

The  elevating  grader  has  been  often  used  and  especially  with 
other  forms  of  machinery  in  the  excavation  of  material  for  levees 
and  embankments.  The  grader  excavated  the  material  from 
shallow  borrow  pits,  and  dumps  it  into  wagons,  which  haul  it 
to  the  site  where  it  is  dumped,  spread  and  rolled  in  layers  of 
from  6  in.  to  12  in.  in  depth.  About  20  per  cent,  shrinkage  should 
be  allowed  for  ordinary  loam  and  clay  or  sand  and  clay  soils. 

241.  Use   of  Elevating  Graders  in  South  Dakota. — A  large 
earthen  dam  was  constructed  across  Owl  Creek  near  Belle  Four- 
che,  South  Dakota,  to  form  the  reservoir  for  the  Belle  Fourche 
Project  of  the  Reclamation  Service.     During  the  early  stages  of 
this  work,  elevating  graders  were  used  to  excavate  the  material 
from  the  borrow  pits,  which  were  located  on  each  side  of  the 
valley  near  the  ends  of  the  dam  and  the  excavated  material  was 
hauled  by  means  of  IJ^-cu.  yd.  dump  wagons.     They  were 
drawn  by  either  two-horse  or  three-horse  teams  and  the  average 
load  was  J^  cubic  yard. 

The  graders  were  Western  Elevating  Graders  of  standard 
size.  One  grader  was  drawn  by  a  32-h.p.,  20-ton,  steam  traction 
engine  and  the  other  by  12  or  14  horses. 

The  following  report  of  hauling  was  submitted  by  Mr.  F.  C. 
Magruder,  Project  Engineer,  and  is  given  entire,  as  being  of 
especial  interest  in  this  matter. 


348     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

Wages  paid  were  $1.75  per  10-hr,  day  for  teamsters  and  $1.00 
per  day  for  horses.  The  dirt  from  Anderson's  pit  was  brought 
up  a  5  per  cent,  grade  making  a  lift  of  60  feet.  C.  Wilson  had  a 
lift  of  45  feet.  Pits  95-97,  56-96,  and  332-372  were  all  at  a  higher 
elevation  than  the  dam  and  the  haul  was  all  down  grade.  Part 
of  the  wagons  were  drawn  by  three  horses  and  part  by  two  horses. 
J.  Lamoro  used  two  horses  and  A.  Lamoro  used  three  horses; 
the  other  outfits  used  part  twos  and  part  threes. 


TABLE  XXII. — COST    OF    HAULING  DIRT  WITH  I^-YD.   DUMP  WAGONS 


Pit  No. 

Foreman 

Yardage 

Cu.  yd. 
per 
wagon 
day 

Cost 
per 
wagon 
day 

Length 
of 
haul 

Cost  per 
cu.  yd. 

Cost  per 
cu.  yd. 
per  100 

290-291 

J.  Lamoro 

7,250 

76.0 

4.39 

600 

$0.058 

$0.0097 

230-231 

Anderson 

5,070 

48.3 

5.34 

1,200 

0.111 

0.0092 

110-112 

A.  Lamoro 

20,710 

78.0 

5.20 

1,300 

0.074 

0.0057 

231 

C.  Wilson 

6,730 

49.2 

4.91 

1,000 

0.100 

0.0100 

332-372 

J.  Lamoro 

4,550 

51.4 

4.48 

1,500 

0.087 

0.0058 

110 

Cotter  • 

2,270 

28.4 

4.91 

2,000 

0.173 

0.0086 

95-97 

Cotter 

25,900 

25.7 

4.91 

2,600 

0.194 

0  .  0075 

56-96 

Cotter 

4,550 

30.1 

4.91 

3,000 

0.163 

0.0055 

The  material  excavated  was  a  gravel  and  a  stiff  clay  which  was 
easily  removed  by  the  grader  plows  and  would  stand  in  a  vertical 
face  several  feet  high  without  caving  or  sliding. 

The  following  table  gives  an  itemized  statement  of  the  cost  of 
excavation  and  hauling  for  the  season  of  1908. 

The  labor  cost  includes  the  cost  of  superintendence,  office  ex- 
penses and  all  other  general  expense.  Wages  for  common  labor 
were  $1.75  and  $2.00  per  day  of  10  hours. 

The  repair  charges  include  cost  of  all  repair  parts  and  labor 
expense  involved  in  making  repairs. 

Depreciation  charges  are  based  on  the  amount  of  work  to  be 
done  by  each  piece  of  machinery,  and  the  estimated  salvage  at 
the  end  of  the  job. 

Supplies  include  oil,  waste,  coal,  boiler  compound,  packing 
and  hose.  Coal  cost,  delivered  at  the  dam,  from  $7.50  to  $10.50 
per  ton,  according  to  the  quality. 


RECLAMATION  WORK 


TABLE  XXIII. — COST  OF  EXCAVATION  AND  HAULING 


349 


Classification 

Hayes  Bros,  grader 

Sub-contractor's 
grader 

Total 

Yardage  39,450  cu.  yd. 
Daily  average391cu.  yd. 
Average  haul  2400  ft. 

Yardage  37,580  cu.  yd. 
Daily  average  572  cu.  yd. 
Average  haul  1200  ft. 

Yardage  77,030  cu.  yd. 
Daily  average406cu.  yd. 
Average  haul  1800  ft. 

Total 

Unit 

Total 

Unit 

Total 

Unit 

Excavation! 
Labor 

$1583.40 
599.87 
1406.00 
1307.46 
4896.73 

6760.00 
7.00 
6767.00 

$0.0402 
0.0152 
0.0356 
0.0332 
0.1242 

0.1715 
0.0002 
0.1717 

$1737.21 
91.70 
171.50 

$0.4620 
0.0024 
0.0046 

$3320.01 
691.57 
1577.50 
1307.46 
6897.14 

9662.47 
15.00 
9677.47 

$0.0431 
0.0090 
0.0205 
0.0170 
0.0896 

0.1264 
0.0002 
0.1266 

Depreciation  
Repairs  
Supplies  . 

Total  
Hauling: 
Labor  

2000.41 

2902.47 
8.00 
2910.47 

0  .  4690 

0.0772 
0.0002 
0.0774 

Depreciation.  .  .  . 
Total  

242.  Use  of  Elevating  Graders  in  Idaho.1 — The  Lower  Deer 
Feet  Embankment  was  completed  in  January,   1908  and  was 
built  as  a  part  of  the  Payette-Bois6  project  of  the  U.  S.  Reclama- 
tion Service  in  Idaho.     The  embankment  is  7350  ft.  long,  20 
ft.  wide  on  top,  with  a  maximum  height  of  43  ft.,  and  an  up- 
stream slope  of  3  to  1  and  a  downstream  slope  of  1^  to  1.     The 
body  of  the  dam  was  built  of  earth  removed  by  four  elevating  grad- 
ers from  borrow  pits  within  the  reservoir.     The  excavated  ma- 
terial was  hauled  in  48  dump  wagons  to  the  site  where  two  road 
or  blade  graders  spread  it  in  uniform  layers.     The  average  cost 
of  handling  the  material  was  21  cents  per  cubic  yard. 

243.  Power  Shovels. — The  power  shovel  is  efficient  in  the  ex- 
cavation of  large  quantities  of  all  classes  of  material  for  the  con- 
struction of  earth  embankments,  dikes  or  dams.     Also  in  the 
excavation  of  the  foundation  for  masonry  dams,  the  power  shovel 
is  used  when  the  magnitude  of  the  work  justifies  its  installation. 

In  the  construction  of  earth  embankments  or  dams  for  reser- 
voirs, the  material  may  often  be  removed  economically  from  pits 
near  the  ends  of  the  structure  and  transported  by  trains  of  dump 
cars  to  the  site.  For  small  work  (where  the  amount  of  material 
may  be  less  than  100,000  cu.  yd.)  the  revolving  shovel  and  dump 
wagons  may  be  efficiently  used. 

When  the  shovel  is  working  at  low  levels,  such  as  in  foundation 
work,  the  use  of  skips  operated  by  derrick  or  cable  way  is  desirable 
for  the  hoisting  and  transportation  of  the  excavated  material. 

1  Abstracted  from  the  Engineering  Record,  May  16,  1908. 


350     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

The  use  of  electrically  operated  shovels  is  advised  where  the 
low  cost  of  power  justifies  their  use.  This  governing  cost  will,  of 
course,  depend  oil  the  relative  cost  of  coal  and  electric  current  in 
any  particular  case.  See  Art.  48,  page  60. 

244.  Use  of  Steam  Shovel  in  South  Dakota.— The  construc- 
tion of  the  large  earthen  dam  to  form  the  reservoir  of  the  Belle 
Fourche  Project  of  the  Reclamation  Service  involved  the  excava- 
tion of  a  large  amount  of  gravel  and  clay  and  its  transportation 
to  the  site. 

The  dam  was  built  across  the  valley  of  Owl  Creek  near  Belle 
Fourche,  South  Dakota.  It  has  a  length  of  about  200  ft.,  height 
at  center  about  90  ft.  and  top  width  of  20  feet.  A  steam  shovel  was 
used  to  excavate  the  material  from  a  hill  near  each  end  of  the  dam. 
The  excavated  material  was  hauled  in  trains  of  dump  cars  upon 
the  site,  dumped,  spread  out  with  scrapers,  into  layers  from  6  to 
9  in.  deep,  sprinkled  and  then  rolled  with  steam  rollers.  The  lay- 
ers were  not  carried  clear  through  the  width  of  the  dam,  but  were 
made  in  varying  widths  and  thicknesses  so  as  to  break  joints. 

Mr.  F.  C.  Magruder,  Project  Engineer,  has  kindly  furnished  the 
following  information  as  to  the  methods  and  costs  of  this  work. 

Two  75-ton  Vulcan  steam  shovels  with  2^-cu.  yd.  dippers  were 
used  during  the  season  of  1908,  loading  trains  made  up  of  4-cu. 
yd.  side  dump  cars  hauled  by  18-ton  Davenport  dinkeys.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  season  one  shovel  was  moved  from  pit  at  north 
end  of  dam  to  a  pit  at  south  end,  a  distance  of  7500  ft.  and  at 
the  end  of  season  was  moved  back  to  north  pit  again.  The  cost 
of  moving  shovel,  dinkeys  and  cars,  amounting  to  $1290.00  or  one 
cent  per  cubic  yard  excavated,  has  been  charged  in  the  south 
side  shovel  costs. 

North  side  shovel  had  an  average  cut  of  22  ft.  and  haul  of 
4800  ft.  using  four  10-car  trains  for  hauling.  South  side  shovel 
had  an  average  cut  of  6.5  ft.,  haul  of  3700  ft.  and  used  three 
8-car  trains.  On  account  of  shallow  pit,  south  side  shovel 
made  15  cuts  during  the  season,  while  north  side  shovel  made 
only  four  cuts.  Cost  of  moving  shovel  back  in  pit  was  $0.011  per 
cubic  yard  and  $0.002  per  cubic  yard  respectively. 

Switches  were  placed  more  advantageously  in  North  Pit  than 
in  South  Pit,  causing  a  minimum  amount  of  lost  time  in  the  for- 
mer waiting  for  trains  to  pass. 

Spreading  was  done  by  four-horse  Fresno  scrapers  hauling  the 
dirt  about  50  ft.  each  way  from  the  track,  and  after  watering  with 


RECLAMATION  WORK 


351 


2-in.  hose,  was  leveled  by  four-horse  road  leveler  and  rolled  with  a 
21-ton  traction  engine.  Track  was  shifted  13  ft.  every  third  layer. 

The  labor  cost  includes  all  cost  of  superintendence,  office  ex- 
penses, telegraph  and  telephone  bills  and  other  general  expenses. 
Wages  for  common  labor  were  $1.75  per  day,  working  10  hr. 
until  October  26  and  8  hr.  for  the  balance  of  the  season. 

The  repair  charge  is  made  up  of  the  cost  of  all  repair  parts 
as  taken  from  Hayes  Bros,  invoices,  together  with  the  labor  cost 
of  putting  in  those  repairs. 

Depreciation  charges  are  based  on  amount  of  work  to  be  done 
by  each  piece  of  machinery,  and  estimated  salvage  at  the  end 
of  the  job. 

Supplies  include  coal,  oil,  waste,  boiler  compound,  packing, 
hose,  powder,  etc.  Coal  costs,  delivered  on  the  job,  from  $7.50 
to  $10.50  per  ton. 

The  following  statement  gives  the  cost  per  cubic  yard  and 
includes  labor,  depreciation,  repairs,  supplies,  etc.: 


North  side 
shovel 

South  side 
shovel 

Average 

Excavation  

$0.0873 

$0  .  1250 

$0.1027 

Hauling 

0  0978 

0.1020 

0  .  0994 

Main  track  
Temporary  track 

0.0076 
0  0215 

0.0045 
0  0240 

0.0064 
0  .  0225 

Spreading  

0.0547 

0.0564 

0.0555 

Rolling  

0  0276 

0  .  0298 

0  .  0285 

Watering 

0  0194 

0  0211 

0  0201 

Total  

0.3159 

0.3628 

0.3351 

245.  Use  of  Steam  Shovel  in  Maine.1  — An  Otis-Chapman 
shovel  has  recently  (1910-12)  been  used  for  the  excavation  of 
earth  to  supply  material  for  the  embankments  which  form  the 
southerly  and  northerly  ends  of  the  Aziscohos  storage  dam  near 
Colebrook,  New  Hampshire. 

The  shovel  borrow  pit  was  located  on  a  hillside  about  500  ft. 
from  the  site  of  the  embankment,  and  the  slope  to  the  embank- 
ment permitted  gravity  transportation,  by  carts,  of  the  excavated 
material.  The  shovel  worked  most  efficiently  with  a  heading 
face  of  from  6  ft.  to  10  feet. 

The  material  was  very  compact  and  hard  to  work,  being  a 
glacial  deposit  of  a  clayey  nature,  locally  called  rock  flour,  with 

*  From  report  of  Seth  A.  Moulton,  Portland,  Maine. 


352      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


about  5  to  6  per  cent,  of  large  boulders  and  a  low  percentage  of 
small  stone. 

The  total  amount  of  earth  excavated  by  the  shovel  was  23,614 
cubic  yards.  A  little  over  5000  cu.  yd.  were  placed  by  hand  with 
derricks  and  skips,  double  shoveling  at  a  cost  of  $1.15  per  cubic 
yard,  including  superintendence  and  overhead  charges. 

The  following  is  a  statement  of  the  cost  per  cubic  yard  of  the 
work : 

Shovel  and  pitmen $0. 115  per  cubic  yard 

Dumpmen  and  puddlers 0 . 105  per  cubic  yard 

Hauling  (cars) 0 . 039  per  cubic  yard 

Grubbing  and  clearing  pit 0 . 030  per  cubic  yard 

Move  shovel  and  repair  shovel 0 . 022  per  cubic  yard 

Move  railroad  tracks  and  repair  cars .  .     0 . 027  per  cubic  yard 

Total $0 . 338  per  cubic  yard 

Supt.,  insurance,  general  and  overhead 

charges 0 . 081  per  cubic  yard 

Total  labor $0 . 419  per  cubic  yard 

Fuel  (wood) 0 . 014  per  cubic  yard 

Plant1 0 . 206  per  cubic  yard 

Total  cost  of  bank $0 . 639  per  cubic  yard 

The  best  day's  run  was  408  cu.  yd.  in  11  hr.  on  September  17, 
1912.  The  detail  costs  for  that  day  were: 


Total 

Unit 

Steam-shovel  men  

$11.25 

$0.0275 

Pitmen                                                       

15.95 

0.0391 

Man  splitting  fuel  for  shovel 

2.20 

0.0054 

Dumpmen  and  spreaders  .  .         

18.55 

0.0454 

Hauling 

11.80 

0.0289 

Grubbing  and  clearing  pit  

6.60 

0.0162 

Repairing  cars  and  track                                

2.50 

0.0061 

Total  

$68.85 

$0.1686 

Supt.,  general  and  overhead  charges  24  per  cent, 
(average) 

$0.0404 

Total  labor  charge                                       .... 

$0.2090 

Fuel 

$3.40 

$0.0083 

Total  without  plant                                   

$0.2173 

Plant  charge  would  have  been  much  less  with  larger  quantity  to  move. 


RECLAMATION  WORK 


353 


246.  Use  of  Power  Shovels  in  New  York.1 — The  construction 
of  the  Hill  View  Reservoir  of  the  Catskill  Water-supply  system  of 
New  York  City  involved  the  excavation  of  about  3,000,000  cu. 
yd.  of  material,  which  was  placed  around  the  edge  of  the  site  to 
form  a  continuous  earth  embankment.  The  average  cut  was 
25  ft.  and  the  maximum  cut  44  feet.  The  material  was  a  dense, 
stiff,  glacial  drift  containing  many  stones  and  boulders. 

All  the  material  was  excavated  by  steam  shovels  and  about  70 
per  cent,  transported  on  trains  of  dump  cars,  consisting  of  ten 
4-yd.  side  dump  cars  hauled  by  10-  to  15-ton  locomotives  running 
on  3-ft.  gage  tracks  of  65-  to  75-lb.  rails.  Five  shovels  of  about 
70  ton  capacity  were  used  in  the  heavy  cuts  and  four  30-ton  shov- 
els in  the  lighter  ones.  The  deep  cuts  up  to  40  ft.  in  depth  were 
shot  down  with  black  powder  and  handled  by  the  shovels  in 
one  operation. 

The  distribution  of  output  for  the  9  shovels  over  the  5  years' 
service  from  1910  to  1914  inclusive  is  as  follows: 


Years  of  service 

Tons  rating 

Total  excavation,  cu.  yd. 

1 

60 

21,600 

5 

60 

600,300 

5 

70 

694,000 

4 

70 

409,900 

3 

65 

249,600 

4^ 

30 

277,500 

4H 

30 

176,200 

2 

30 

122,300 

4K 

30 

289,400 

Total....  2,  840,  800 

247.  Scraper-bucket  Excavators. — The  scraper-bucket  exca- 
vator is  being  used  generally  and  very  successfully  in  recent 
years  for  the  excavation  of  foundations  for  dams,  the  construc- 
tion of  earth  embankments  and  of  canals.  The  wide  latitude  of 
operation  provided  by  the  complete  circle  swing  and  the  drag- 
line method  of  excavation  make  the  scraper-bucket  excavator 
especially  efficient  in  the  construction  of  earth  embankments, 
dams  and  levees.  Several  machines  can  often  be  operated  coor- 
dinately  on  large  work.  During  the  last  few  years  (1915- 

1  Abstracted  from  Engineering  News,  September  9,  1915. 

23 


354      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

1918),  in  the  building  of  large  levees  along  the  Mississippi  River, 
one  machine  has  been  used  to  strip  the  levee  base  and  dig  the 
muck  ditch,  while  one  or  two  other  machines  follow  along,  and 
excavate,  from  borrow  pits,  the  material  for  the  body  of  the  em- 
bankment. 

The  caterpillar  tractor  has  been  the  principal  factor  which  has 
made  possible  the  universal  use  of  the  drag-line  excavator  for 
the  excavation  of  soft,  wet  soils.  The  low  unit  pressure  over 
the  extensive  area  of  the  moving  platforms  and  the  great  flexi- 
bility of  the  latter  provide  for  the  movement  of  the  heaviest 
machines  over  swampy  and  rough  ground. 

248.  Use  of  Drag -line  Excavator  in  Louisiana.1 — During  1913 
arid  1914,  1500  ft.  of  new  levee  and  8400  ft.  of  old  levee  en- 


FIG.  167. — Drag-line  excavator  constructing  a  levee. 

largement  were  built  along  the  east  bank  of  the  Mississippi 
River  below  Baton  Rouge,  Louisiana.  The  new  levee  had  a  10- 
ft.  top  width,  an  average  height  of  17 J^  ft.,  a  bottom  width  of  110 
ft.,  a  downstream  slope  of  3  to  1  and  a  slope  on  the  land  side 
of  4  to  1.  The  enlargement  of  the  old  levee  comprised  the  plac- 
ing of  material  on  the  river  side  so  as  to  raise  the  grade  about  6 
ft.  with  a  shift  of  the  center  of  the  levee,  25  ft.  toward  the  river. 
A  Class  24,  Bucyrus  drag-line  excavator  was  used.  The  ma- 
chine was  equipped  with  a  100-ft.  boom  and  a  3%-yd.  bucket.  Spe- 
cial sectional  platforms  were  used  for  the  support  of  the  excavator; 

Abstracted  from  Excavating  Engineer,  August,  1916. 


RECLAMATION  WORK 


355 


five  under  each  side,  forming  a  track  of  about  100  ft.  in  length. 
Each  section  consisted  of  three  3-in.  X  16-in.  X  20-ft.  stringers 
laid  side  by  side  forming  a  roller  bed  4  ft.  wide.  Under  these 
stringers  were  placed  ten  6-in.  X  8-in.  X  8-ft.  standard  railroad 
ties,  spaced  2  ft.  on  centers.  Under  these  were  placed  three  2j^-in. 
X  16-in.  X  20-ft.  planks,  forming  a  lower  floor  for  the  section. 
The  three  sets  of  timbers  were  fastened  together  by  thirty  %-in. 
X  13-in.  machine  bolts,  with  heads  countersunk  below  the  top 
surface  of  the  timbers.  Figure  167  shows  the  excavator  in 
operation. 

The  total  contract  involved  the  handling  of  about  375,000  cu. 
yd.  of  material.  The  following  statement  gives  the  estimated 
output  of  the  machine. 


Month 

Number  of 
shifts 

Output, 
cu.  yd. 

Output   per 
shift, 
cu.  yd. 

December,  1913 

19 

37,800 

1900 

January,  1914  '  

42 

87,000 

2071 

April,  1914 

34 

66,000 

1942 

May,  1914  

19 

39,000 

2053 

The  greatest  output  during  a  single  11-hr,  shift  was  2660  cu. 
yd.,  and  during  two  consecutive  11-hr,  shifts  was  5480  cubic  yards. 

249.  Use  of  Drag -line  Excavator  in  Missouri.1 — The  construc- 
tion of  the  head  water  diverision  works  of  the  Little  River  Drainage 
District  of  Missouri,  during  1914  to  1916  included  the  construc- 
tion of  flood  channels,  having  bottom  widths  of  from  50  ft.  to 
112  ft.,  a  maximum  depth  of  17  ft.,  side  slopes  of  2  to  1  and  <% 
to  1  and  a  total  length  of  34  miles.  Spoil  was  deposited  in  banks 
with  3  to  1  slopes,  an  8-ft.  crown  and  a  40-ft.  berm  on  the  chan- 
nel side.  The  East  Basin  levee  had  an  8-ft.  crown,  side  slopes 
of  2  to  1,  and  a  central  muck  ditch  8  ft.  deep  and  6  ft.  wide, 
similar  to  the  one  under  the  main  embankment.  The  construc- 
tion of  the  levees  involved  the  handling  of  8,600,00  cu.  yd.  of 
material. 

The  method  of  procedure  in  the  construction  of  the  great 
levees  is  interesting  and  worthy  of  the  study  of  the  reader.  A 
reference  to  Fig.  168  will  clearly  indicate  the  various  steps  which 
were  as  follows. 

1  Abstracted  from  Engineering  Record,  June  24,  1916. 


356      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


(/8I  X  uot)iU3do 


^Pv    a/  ^ME^rr     s 

(8'^bw^^r/     X^Sr''     '    1 

vt^^S^«3J^   I 

a|J»b  -^«  w         poAotuaj  sdtun^g 


RECLAMATION  WORK  357 

A  Clyde  stump  puller  followed  the  timber-clearing  gang  and  de- 
posited the  stumps,  roots,  etc.,  in  a  continuous  pile  20  ft.  outside 
of  the  limits  of  the  flooded  area.  This  debris  was  later  burned. 

The  next  operation  consisted  in  the  stripping  of  the  diversion 
channel  area  to  a  depth  of  about  6  in.  with  a  Bucyrus  steam- 
operated  drag-line  excavator,  equipped  with  a  70-ft.  boom  and  a 
1/^-yd.  bucket.  An  inspection  of  Fig.  168  will  show  the  move- 
ment of  "Unit  1"  in  this  work.  Operations  1  and  2  consist  of 
stripping.  Operation  3  consists  of  the  excavation  of  a  muck 
ditch  having  a  width  of  6  ft.  and  a  depth  of  8  feet.  The  fourth 
operation  comprised  the  stripping  of  the  remainder  of  the  levee 
area  and  the  rehandling  of  the  stripping  taken  from  the  channel 
area.  The  wasting  zone  for  operation  4  was  between  that 
for  operations  2  and  3  and  on  top  of  the  material  placed  in  opera- 
tion 2.  The  material  was  leveled  off  to  form  a  banquette  with 
a  top  width  of  about  18  ft.  and  an  outside  slope  of  1J^  to  1. 

The  next  step  was  the  building  up  of  the  levee  over  its  whole 
base  area  by  means  of  a  Bucyrus  electrically  operated  drag- 
line excavator  equipped  with  a  125-ft.  boom  and  a  3j^-yd.  bucket. 
The  machine,  "Unit  2"  in  Fig.  168,  moved  along  the  berm  line 
and  excavated  material  within  a  zone  having  a  width  of  125  ft. 
and  deposited  the  same  over  a  zone  with  a  width  of  132  feet.  The 
material  was  placed  in  two  layers;  the  first  having  a  depth  of 
about  6  ft.  and  the  second  so  as  to  bring  the  embankment  to  a 
height  of  about  10  feet.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  far  bank  was  cut 
to  a  1  to  1  slope.  This  machine  worked  about  2000  ft.  behind 
the  stripping  machine,  and  placed  about  65  per  cent,  of  the  prism. 

The  last  step  consisted  in  the  excavation  of  the  remainder  of 
the  channel  and  the  completion  of  the  levee  prism.  This  was  done 
with  "Unit  3, "  see  Fig.  168,  a  Bucyrus  electrically  operated  drag- 
line excavator  mounted  on  trucks  and  equipped  with  a  100-ft. 
boom  and  a  4j^-yd.  bucket.  The  third  and  fourth  lifts  or  layers 
of  the  levee  had  thicknesses  of  about  6  ft.  and  4  feet.  The  near 
side  of  the  channel  was  built  with  a  slope  of  about  2  to  1.  Where 
the  channel  excavation  was  insufficient  to  complete  the  levee, 
the  depth  of  the  waterway  was  increased.  The  slopes  of  the 
prism  were  maintained  and  the  base  width  narrowed  as  the  depth 
of  excavation  increased. 

The  current  was  furnished  from  a  pole  line  erected  along  the 
line  of  the  channel.  The  transformers  were  placed  on  barges 
which  moved  along  the  channel  and  reduced  the  line  voltage  of 
13,200  to  440. 


358     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

The  excavators  were  operated  in  three  shifts  of  8  hr.  each 
for  the  operators  or  runners;  the  rest  of  each  crew,  a  foreman, 
three  laborers,  one  helper  and  a  spotter  worked  in  two  12- 
hr,  shifts.  The  rate  of  progress  averaged  about  60,000  cu.  yd. 
per  month  for  the  3^-yd.  machine  and  70,000  cu.  yd.  per  month 
for  the  4^-yd.  machine.  Maximum  records  gave  as  high  as  from 
80,000  to  90,000  cu.  yd  per  month  and  a  single  day's  record  of 
5600  cubic  yards.  The  equipment  was  shut  down  only  about 
5  per  cent,  of  the  time. 

250.  Grab-bucket     Dredges. — Grab-bucket     dredges    have 
been  used  to  a  considerable  extent,  especially  in  the  South,  for 
the  construction  of  levees  in  muck  and  soft  soil.     They  may  be 
equipped  with  either  orange-peel  or  clam-shell  buckets ;  the  for- 
mer is  preferable  for  muck  and  silt  and  the  latter  for  sandy  soils. 
When  the  banks  are  dry  and  firm,  the  machine  is  generally 
mounted  on  skids  and  rollers,  but  may  be  placed  on  a  barge 
under  high-water  conditions. 

251.  Use   of   Grab-bucket  Dredge  in  Louisiana.1 — The  fol- 
lowing table  gives  the  cost  of  operation  of  a  traction  dredge, 
equipped  with  a  2j^-cu.yd.  orange-peel  bucket.     These  figures 
are  for  a  typical  piece  of  levee  construction  in  alluvial  s.oil  and 
where  clearing  is  not  required. 

Labor: 

I  engineer  @  $120.00  per  month $120.00 

1  fireman  @  $50.00  per  month 50.00 

1  track  foreman  @  $2.00  per  day 52.00 

4  trackmen  @  $1.75  per  day  each 182.00 

1  pumpman 39 . 00 


Total  labor  cost $443.00 

The  above  is  the  labor  schedule  for  one  11-hr,  shift. 

The  night  shift  cost  would  be  the  same $443 . 00 

General  Supplies: 

1  team  and  driver  for  hauling  coal $91 . 00 

1040  barrels  of  Pittsburgh  coal  @  $0.37 '384.80 

Oil  and  waste 10.40 

Repairs  and  breakage 78 . 00 

Total  cost  of  supplies $564. 20 

Total  operating  expenses  for  1  month $1450 . 20 

Average  amount  of  excavation  for  1  month 38,000  cu.  yd. 

Average  cost  of  excavation  per  cubic  yard $0 . 038 

1  Abstracted  from  Circular,  74,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 


RECLAMATION  WORK 


359 


The  construction  of  the  Myrtle  Grove  levee  in  1913,  was  done 
by  an  orange-peel  excavator,  equipped  with  a  75-ft.  boom  and 
a  2-yd.  bucket.  The  work  was  done  during  high  water,  making 
it  necessary  to  operate  the  machine  from  a  barge  and  to  re- 
handle  about  30  per  cent,  of  the  material. 

The  following  statement  gives  detailed  information  concerning 
the  character,  scope  and  cost  of  the  work. 

Character  of  work:  Enlargement  and  new  levee. 
Length  of  work:  2726  ft.  of  enlargement,  2411  ft.  of  new  levee. 
Net  height  of  levee :  10 . 1  ft.  to  12.6  ft. 
Total  cu.  yd.  in  levee:  53,794.29. 
Total  time  consumed  on  levee :  84  calendar  days. 

Total  time  lost  in  the  84  calendar  days:  1  day  towing,  12  Sundays,  3  half- 
day  Saturdays,  or  14^  days;  also  one  holiday. 


ANALYSIS  OP  COST 


Equivalent 
cost  per  cu.  yd. 

For  services  machine  crew  

$1772.30 

$0  .  0329 

For  services  day  labor 

1517.33 

0.0282 

For  towing  services  '  
For  team  hire,  plowing  base  and  hauling  coal.  .  .  . 
For  levee  dressing  
For  laundry 

96.73 
68.96 
346.25 
23.25 

0.0018 
0.0013 
0.0064 
0.0004 

For  coal    1098  5  bbl    @  34^  ff 

378  98 

0.0070 

For  subsistence                                   .                ... 

375.33 

0.0070 

For  ice                         

81.70 

0.0015 

For  gasoline  
For  lubricants  
For  headlight  oil              

12.45 
45.90 
9.20 

0.0002 
0.0009 
0.0002 

For  miscellaneous  supplies                                

188.55 

0.0035 

For  repairs  (ordinary) 

116.75 

0.0022 

Construction  cost                           

5033  .  68 

0.0935 

For  interest  on  investment,  84  days,  6  per  cent, 
per  annum,  $30,000  00  '  

415.12 

For  depreciation,  4  per  cent,  per  annum  

276.75 

Total                

$5725.55 

$0.1074 

Estimated  cost  of  work  if  let  by  contract  .  .  . 

$0.25 

About  30  per  cent,  of  the  material  was  handled  twice.  It  was 
first  dredged  out  of  the  river  and  placed  on  the  land  and  after- 
ward moved  into  the  levee. 


360     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

252.  Use  of  Grab-bucket  Dredge  in  California.1— The  delta 
lands  at  the  junction  of  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  Rivers 
were  reclaimed  by  the  construction  of  levees. 

The  dredge  had  a  hull  whose  length  was  140  ft.,  width  50ft.,  and 
depth  10  feet.  It  was  made  with  two  longitudinal  and  two  cross 
bulkheads,  extending  from  keels  to  deck.  The  hull  was  built 
of  12-in.  square  timbers.  There  were  two  side  and  one  rear 
stationary  spuds,  and  one  fleeting  spud.  All  the  spuds  were 
built  of  single  timbers,  each  30  in.  square  and  70  ft.  long.  The 
boom  was  made  up  of  24-in.  square  timbers  spliced  in  the  center 
and  forming  a  structure  150  ft.  long.  The  bucket  had  a  spread  of 
14  ft.  and  was  capable  of  lifting  14  cu.  yd.  of  material  weighing 
25  tons  at  one  time. 

Power  was  furnished  by  a  double-cylinder,  high-pressure  engine 
of  about  500  horse  power.  The  engine  was  equipped  with  two 
14-in  high-pressure  cylinders,  working  into  one  41-in.  low-pressure 
cylinder.  Steam  was  furnished  by  boilers  of  Scotch  marine 
type,  having  lengths  of  13^  ft.  and  heights  of  7  feet.  Crude 
petroleum  oil  was  used  for  fuel. 

The  soils  were  sand  and  clay,  and  were  efficiently  excavated 
with  this  dredge.  When  working  uniformly,  the  bucket  made  a 
round  trip  in  about  1  minute.  The  work  was  carried  on  in 
two  11-hr,  shifts  for  each  working  day  and  the  average  excava- 
tion was  about  8000  cubic  yards.  The  maximum  excavation 
made  in  a  day  was  about  10,500  cubic  yards. 

253.  Templet  Levee  Builder. — The  Austin  Levee  Builder  is  a 
templet  excavator,  built  on  the  same  general  principles  as  those 
described  in  Chapter  VIII.  These  excavators  can  be  adapted  to 
levee  construction  by  making  a  few  simple  modifications. 

The  levee  builder  consists  of  a  moving  platform,  which  supports 
an  excavator  frame  at  one  end  and  a  levee  runway  at  the  other 
end. 

The  platform  is  generally  built  of  timber  and  has  a  length  of 
22  ft.  and  a  width  of  20  ft.  It  carries  the  power  equipment, 
which  is  generally  housed  in.  Figure  169  shows  one  of  the 
machines  at  work. 

The  platform  moves  on  a  track  made  up  of  12-in.  by  12-in. 
timbers,  200  ft.  in  length.  On  the  tops  of  these  are  spiked  T- 

1  From  information  furnished  by  Capt.  C.  O.  Sherrill,  U.  S.  Corps  of 
Engineers. 


RECLAMATION  WORK  361 

rails  which  take  the  flanged  wheels  of  the  plaftorm  trucks.  For 
soft  ground,  roller  platform  traction  is  used. 

The  power  equipment  consists  of  a  steam-boiler  and  engine. 
The  boiler  is  a  50-h.p.  fire-box  locomotive  type  weighing  10,500 
pounds.  The  engine  is  a  40-h.p.  reversible,  double-cylinder,  double- 
friction  drum,  hoisting  engine,  provided  with  steel  gearing.  The 
engine  weighs  about  12,000  pounds.  The  makers  will  furnish  a 
gasoline  engine  instead  of  the  regular  steam  equipment  if  desired. 

A  four-legged  A-frame,  made  up  of  structural  steel  members 
is  supported  on  the  platform.  From  the  top  of  this  frame, 
cables  pass  over  steel  sheaves  to  the  outer  ends  of  the  excavator 
frame  and  the  levee  runway.  These  cables  are  connected  to  the 


FIG.  169. — Austin  templet  machine  constructing  a  levee.     (Courtesy  of  F.  C. 

Austin  Co.) 

drums  of  the  hoisting  engine  and  thus  control  the  raising  and  low- 
ering of  these  two  frames. 

On  the  outer  or  borrow  pit  end  of  the  platform  is  hinged  a 
steel  frame  or  guideway,  which  has  the  general  shape  of  a  ditch 
cross-section,  and  can  be  raised  and  lowered  by  the  operator  by 
means  of  steel  wire  cables  passing  over  a  sheave  at  the  outer  end 
of  the  frame,  thence  to  a  sheave  at  the  top  of  the  A-frame  and 
thence  to  the  engine.  This  frame  forms  a  track  over  which  a 
bucket  passes.  The  bucket  commences  at  the  farther  outside 
bearing  of  the  runway  and  is  drawn  by  a  wire  cable  attached  to 
the  engine  drum  toward  the  machine,  passing  along  the  guideway 
and  then  across  the  berm  and  up  the  levee  runway  and  dumped. 
Thus  the  bucket  in  its  path  moves  over  a  continuous  guideway 
or  steel  track  which  extends  from  the  outer  point  of  the  borrow 
pit,  in  front  of  the  platform  and  to  the  center  of  the  levee.  The 


362      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

bucket  after  dumping,  is  pulled  back  along  its  track  to  the  outer 
point  of  the  cutting  frame,  where  it  commences  the  excavation 
of  another  slice  of  earth.  The  frame  is  gradually  lowered  as  the 
bucket  excavates,  until  the  bottom  of  the  frame  is  horizontal. 
Then  the  frame  is  raised  and  the  whole  machine  moves  ahead 
about  3  ft.  and  another  section  of  the  pit  is  excavated. 

The  bucket  used  is  made  of  steel  plate  with  heavy  manganese 
steel  cutting  edge.  Its  length  is  48  in.,  depth  36  in.  and  width 
43  inches.  Buckets  having  capacities  of  from  1  ^  cu.  yd.  to  2J£  cu. 
yd.  each,  can  be  used  on  this  machine.  The  approximate  weight 
of  a  2-cu.  yd.  bucket  is  3000  pounds. 

This  levee  builder  is  made  to  excavate  borrow  pits  with  lj£ 
to  1  or  with  1  to  1  side  slopes.  With  1J^  to  1  side  slopes,  the 
machine  can  excavate  a  pit  having  a  maximum  depth  of  20  ft. 
and  bottom  width  of  20  ft.,  and  a  minimum  bottom  width  of 
5  feet.  With  1  to  1  side  slopes,  the  maximum  depth  would  be  30 
ft.  and  corresponding  maximum  bottom  width  of  30  ft.  and  a 
minimum  bottom  width  of  6  feet.  The  width  of  berm  varies  from 
20  ft.  to  40  ft.  depending  on  the  amount  of  material  to  be  placed 
in  the  levee  and  local  conditions. 

Under  favorable  conditions,  this  machine  will  excavate  and 
dump  abut  1000  cu.  yd.  of  earth  per  10-hr,  day.  The  labor  re- 
quired is  an  operator,  a  fireman,  a  track  gang  composed  of  two  men 
and  a  team  of  horses  and  a  man  and  team  for  hauling  supplies, 
fuel,  etc.  When  roller  platform  traction  is  used,  the  track  gang 
is  not  necessary,  except  when  the  soil  is  very  soft  and  one  or  two 
extra  laborers  are  required  for  planking.  About  2  tons  of  coal  are 
used  in  a  10-hr,  shift.  The  operating  cost  for  a  10-hr,  day 
would  vary  from  $25.00  to  $30.00,  when  the  soil  conditions  were 
favorable. 

The  F.  C.  Austin  Drainage  Excavator  Company  have  also  de- 
signed a  multiple  bucket  excavator  for  levee  work.  This  machine 
consists  of  two  moving  platforms,  each  carrying  its  operating 
machine  and  excavator.  The  excavator  consists  of  a  triangular- 
shaped  steel-truss  frame  supported  at  its  inner  end  on  the  plat- 
form and  also  near  its  center  by  a  cable  from  a  crane,  extending 
from  the  platform  out  over  the  excavator  frame.  The  latter 
carries  a  continuous  chain  equipped  with  steel  buckets,  which 
cut  out  the  soil  as  the  frame  is  gradually  lowered.  At  the  plat- 
form end  of  the  bucker  chain,  the  buckets  dump  their  loads  as 
they  turn  over.  The  excavated  material  is  dropped  on  a  moving 


RECLAMATION  WORK  363 

belt  conveyor,  which  carries  the  material  to  the  levee.  The 
excavator  frame  and  belt  conveyor  can  be  raised  and  lowered  by 
the  operator. 

This  excavator  can  be  duplicated  on  the  other  side  and  a  double 
levee  constructed  as  is  often  necessary  in  straightening  out  and 
enlarging  a  natural  water  course.  Each  machine  is  designed  to 
dig  a  pit  having  a  bottom  width  of  40  ft.,  depth  of  20  ft.,  and  side 
slope  of  2  to  1.  The  berm  would  vary  from  40  ft.  to  GO  feet. 

254.  Cableways.— During  the  past  6  years  (1912-18),  the 
cableway  has  been  greatly  developed  and  adapted  to  earth- 


Fio.  170. — Drag-line   cableway  on   levee  construction.     (Courtesy  of  G.  A.  & 

R.  A,  McWilliams.) 

work.  This  has  been  especially  true  with  regard  to  the  excava- 
tion of  large  channels  and  the  construction  of  levees.  See  Chap- 
ter XL 

The  tower  excavator,  the  early  type  of  slack-line  cableway, 
has  recently  been  used  successfully  in  levee  construction,  but  its 
field  of  use  is  largely  limited  to  the  construction  of  banquettes 
behind  existing  levees  or  the  enlargement  of  existing  banquettes. 
The  borrow  pits  excavated  by  this  machine  are  often  irregular  in 
section  due  to  the  difficulty  of  control  of  the  bucket  while  being 
loaded. 

The  latest  development  in  the  cableway  excavator  is  the  taut- 
line  machine.  Its  general  features  are  shown  in  Fig.  170.  The 
towers  may  be  built  of  steel  or  timber  and  vary  in  height  from  30 


364     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


ft.  to  90  feet.  A  heavy  cable,  2  in.  to  3  in.  is  stretched  between 
them  and  supports  a  carriage  carrying  a  drag-line  bucket.  The 
carriage  is  moved  back  and  forth  by  means  of  an  endless  line, 
operated  by  one  of  the  drums  of  the  hoisting  engine.  The  bucket 
is  loaded  by  means  of  a  cable  operated  by  another  drum  of  the 
hoisting  engine,  and  is  lifted  by  a  fall  line  attached  to  the  bail 
of  the  bucket  and  thence  passing  over  a  sheave  on  the  carriage 
to  a  sheave  at  the  top  of  the  head  tower  and  down  to  a  third  drum 
of  the  engine.  The  bucket  is  dumped  by  means  of  a  haul-down 
cable  operated  from  a  special  engine  on  the  head  tower.  The 
tail  tower  is  moved  by  a  friction  drum  operated  by  the  conveying 
line. 

255.  Use  of  Single-tower  Excavator  in  Louisiana.1 — Previous 
to  the  letting  of  the  contract  for  a  section  of  the  work  of  reclama- 
tion of  the  Bogne  Phalia  Drainage  District,  the  engineers,  the 
Morgan  Engineering  Company  of  Memphis,  Tenn.,  made  a  test 
of  a  single-tower  excavator. 

The  ditch  had  a  bottom  width  of  80  ft.,  an  average  depth  of  17 
ft.,  with  2  to  1  side  slopes  and  berms  of  30  feet. 

The  machine  worked  for  216  hr.  between  June  19,  1913  and 
August  4,  1913,  by  one  shift  and  excavated  25,819  cu.  yd.  or  at  an 
average  rate  of  117  cu.  yd.  per  hour.  The  following  is  a  state- 
ment of  the  cost  of  operation : 


Item 

Total  cost 

Unit  cost 

Labor  and  board  

$722.25 

$0.0280 

Livery  and  horse  hire 

85  00 

0  0037 

Coal,  85  tons  @  $3  .  45  

293  .  25 

0.0113 

Gasoline  and  oil  

37.06 

0.0014 

Repairs  

341  42 

0  0132 

Miscellaneous  

1.50 

0.0000 

Total 

$1480  48 

$0  0576 

Total  excavation . 

Unit  cost,  $1480.48  -T-  25,819  =  $0.0576 


25,819  cu.  yd. 


256.  Use  of  Cable  way  Excavators  in  Mississippi.2 — A  taut-line 
or  double-tower  cable  way  was  used  in  1915  in  the  repair  and 

1  Abstracted  from  Engineering  News,  May  25,  1916. 

2  Compiled  from  Professional  Memoirs,  U.  S.  Corps  of  Engineers,  May- 
June,  1916. 


RECLAMATION  WORK 


365 


enlargement  of  levees  near  Greenville,  Miss.  The  work  required 
the  excavation  of  about  2150  cu.  yd.  per  station  of  100  feet.  In 
order  to  secure  this  material  it  was  found  necessary  to  go  63  ft. 
beyond  the  previous  river-side  pit  and  make  a  pit  whose  outer 
edge  would  be  428  ft.  from  the  center  line  of  the  crown  of  the 
original  levee. 

The  cable  way  consisted  of  two  steel  towers;  the  head  tower 
85  ft.  high  and  the  tail  tower,  45  ft.  high,  supporting  a  2J£  in. 
steel  cable.  The  carriage  which  traveled  on  this  cable  supported 
a  3-yd.  drag-line  bucket.  A  derrick  was  used  on  the  tail  tower 
to  move  the  track  sections,  and  on  the  head  tower,  the  track 
sections  were  moved  by  the  hoisting  engine.  The  frictions  and 
brakes  were  all  operated  by  compressed  air. 

The  labor  used  in  the  operation  of  this  machine  was  as  follows : 
one  foreman  rigger,  one  operator,  one  rigger's  helper,  one  engine- 
man,  one  fireman,  one  signalman,  eleven  laborers,  three  track- 
men for  tail  tower,  five  trackmen  for  head  tower  and  three 
laborers  for  dressing  the  levee,  and  three  teamsters  for  ploughing, 
dressing  levee  and  hauling  supplies. 

The  following  statement  gives  the  cost  of  operation  during 
the  working  season  of  1915. 


Month—  1915 

Monthly 
excavation, 
cu.  yd. 

Cost  per 
cu.  yd. 

Total  excava- 
tion to  date, 
cu.  yd. 

Average 
cost  per. 
cu.  yd. 

April 

5,211 

$0   185 

5,211 

$0   185 

May  

13,239 

0.139 

18,450 

0   152 

June  

20,050 

0  155 

38,500 

0  153 

July 

23850 

0  113 

62  350 

0  138 

August  

19,050 

0.149 

81,400 

0  140 

September   . 

2  600 

0  705 

84,000 

0  158 

October 

22  800 

0  104 

106  800 

0  146 

November  • 

28,500 

0.111 

135,300 

0  139 

December  

18,600 

0.225 

153,900 

0.149 

The  very  high  costs  of  September  were  due  to  delays  from 
high  water,  wet  pits  and  repairs.  The  high  costs  of  December 
were  caused  by  delays  from  high  water,  a  coal  shortage  and  the 
holiday  season.  The  average  distance  the  excavated  material 
was  hauled  was  412  ft.,  and  the  average  amount  of  slope  dressing 
was  17,200  sq.  ft.  per  100  ft.  station. 


366     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

257.  Floating-dipper    Dredge. — The    floating-dipper    dredge 
has  been  used  to  some  extent  in  the  South  for  the  construction  of 
levees,   where  the  latter  are  of  small  cross-section.     As  this 
type  of  excavator  must  remove  all  the  material  from  a  channel  and 
in  front  of  itself,  it  is  not  a  practical  machine  for  the  construction 
of  large  levees.     The  latter  would  require  the  excavation  of 
deep  channels,  which  would  lie  too  near  the  toe  of  the  levee  for 
safety.     The  dipper  dredge  has  a  comparatively  short  boom  and 
reach  and  hence  is  generally  not  adapted  to  the  construction  of 
levees  where  the  prism  has  a  volume  of  over  1000  cu.  yd.  per  100 
ft.  station. 

The  floating-dipper  dredge  has  been  successfully  used  in  coor- 
dination with  a  hydraulic  dredge  in  levee  construction  along 
natural  streams.  The  dipper  dredge  builds  a  small  embankment 
along  the  toe  of  the  proposed  levee  and  thus  furnishes  a  dam 
behind  which  the  hydraulic  dredge  discharges  its  fluid  material. 

258.  Hydraulic  Dredge. — The  hydraulic  dredge  has  generally 
been  considered  rather  an  uneconomical  and  inefficient  type  of 
excavator  to  use  in  the  construction  of  levees  on  account  of  the 
difficulty  and  expense  of  retaining  the  fluid  dredged  material 
within  the  limits  of  the  desired  prism.     The  early  method  of 
retaining  the  fluid  material  consisted  in  the  initial  construction 
of  two  ridges  of  dry  material  at  the  toe  of  the  two  slopes,  and 
then  filling  in  between  with  the  material  from  the  discharge  pipe 
of  the  hydraulic  dredge,  up  to  the  top  of  the  ridges.     After  the  wet 
filling  dries  out  and  solidifies,  two  more  ridges  are  built  and 
filled  in.     This  process  is  continued  until  the  levee  is  carried 
to  the  proper  elevation  and  completed.     This  process  is  satis- 
factory as  to  final  results,  but  slow  and  expensive. 

Since  1910,  two  methods  have  been  successfully  used  in  the 
construction  of  hydraulic  fill  embankments.  The  first  is  the  use 
of  "shutter  pipes"  and  the  second  is  with  baffle  or  slope  boards. 

The  "shutter  pipes"  are  14  ft.  to  20  ft.  lengths  of  discharge 
pipe  of  from  No.  10  to  No.  14  sheet  steel  and  provided  with 
openings  in  the  bottom.  These  openings  are  controlled  by  steel 
plates  or  shutters  and  may  be  closed  or  opened  to  any  extent.  The 
pipes  are  generally  laid  on  a  timber  trestle  over  the  site  of  the 
embankment  and  connected  to  the  discharge  pipe  of  the  dredge. 
The  surplus  water  is  carried  away  through  a  length  of  discharge 
pipe  beyond  the  "shutter  pipes."  This  method  operates  on  the 
principle  that  the  material  flowing  in  the  discharge  pipe  moves 


RECLAMATION  WORK  367 

in  strata  with  the  heavier  material  at  the  bottom  and  the  sand 
and  silt  in  the  upper  section  of  the  pipe.  The  velocity  of  the 
material  is  inversely  proportional  to  its  density.  The  motion 
is  not  uniform  and  occurs  like  wave  action  with  a  series  of  crests 
and  troughs. 

Baffle  or  slope  boards  are  wooden  or  steel  boards  from  12  in. 
to  20  in.  wide  and  8  ft.  to  20  ft.  long.  The  wooden  boards  are 
generally  of  1-in.  material,  and  held  in  place  by  2  in.  by  4  in. 
studding.  The  steel  boards  are  of  from  No.  10  to  No.  16  gage 
steel  with  angle  iron  tips  for  lateral  stiffness.  These  slope  boards 
are  placed  at  the  intersection  of  the  side  slope  with  the  natural 
slope  of  the  end  of  the  fill  under  construction.  These  boards 
serve  to  restrain  the  flow  of  the  fluid  material  until  the  top  is 
reached,  when  they  are  pulled  out  and  moved  further  up  the  slope. 

The  two  methods  described  above  are  often  used  together  and 
recently  some  remarkably  efficient  and  economical  results  have 
been  obtained.  Considerable  care  must  be  exercised  to  keep  a 
uniform  flow  of  material  in  the  discharge  pipe.  Judgment  is 
necessary  to  ensure  the  proper  operation  of  the  shutters;  opening 
them  up  to  discharge  more  water  to  secure  a  flatter  slope  and  clos- 
ing some  if  the  percentage  of  solid  material  decreases.  The  hand- 
ling and  placing  of  the  slope  boards  is  important  and  requires 
considerable  experience  to  secure  an  embankment  with  proper 
slopes. 

259.  Use  of  Hydraulic  Dredges  in  California.1 — Two  large  and 
powerful  hydraulic  dredges  were  used  during  several  seasons  for 
the  construction  of  levees  along  the  Sacramento  River.  The  two 
dredges  had  steel  hulls,  104  ft.  long,  35  ft.  wide  and  9  ft.  deep 
and  were  equipped  with  suction  pipes  50  ft.  long  and  rotary 
cutters.  One  dredge  had  a  steam  equipment  consisting  of  a 
triple-expansion  engine  of  about  600  h.p.  supplied  with  steam 
at  160  Ib.  pressure  from  two  water  tube  boilers,  for  the  operation 
of  the  74-in.  runner  at  190  r.p.m.;  a  double-cylinder,  10-in. 
by  12-in.  engine  for  driving  the  cutter;  and  a  double-cylinder, 
8-in.  by  8-in.  engine  for  the  operation  of  the  winding  machinery 
which  handles  the  spuds  and  ladder  and  swings  the  dredge.  A 
surface  condenser  received  the  exhaust  from  all  the  engines. 
The  dredge  cost  $105,000.00  including  pontoon  line  and  shore  pipe. 

The  electrically  operated  dredge  was  provided  with  a  20-in. 
centrifugal  pump  with  a  50-in.  runner,  and  was  driven  by  a 

1  Abstracted,  from  Engineering  News,  October  29,  1914. 


368     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

750-h.p.  motor  whose  speed  varied  from  300  to  350  r.p.m.,  wind- 
ing machinery  actuated  by  a  35-h.p.  motor  and  the  cutter  by  a 
150-h.p.  motor.  Three-phase,  60-cycle,  alternating  current, 
at  11,000  volts,  was  brought  to  the  dredge  by  a  submarine  cable 
and  stepped  down  to  2200  volts.  This  dredge  cost  $85,000.00. 

The  steam-operated  dredge  has  deposited  several  million  cubic 
yards  of  material  at  an  average  cost  of  6.6  cents  per  cubic  yard. 
The  average  output  has  been  about  200,000 cu.  yd.  per  month;  the 
dredge  operating  24  hr.  a  day  and  6  days  per  week.  The 
record  for  one  month  was  248,000  cubic  yards.  The  labor  re- 
quired for  the  operation  of  the  dredge  consisted  of  6  men  per 
shift  and  about  16  extra  laborers  to  handle  the  pipe  line. 

260.  Use  of  Hydraulic  Dredge  on  Mississippi  River.1 — The  fol- 
lowing is  a  typical  example  of  the  cost  of  operation  of  a  15-in.  hy- 
draulic dredge  on  levee  construction  on  the  lower  Mississippi  River. 

The  dredge  should  be  equipped  with  a  cross-compound  engine 
of  the  horizontal  type,  direct  connected  to  the  15-in.  centrifugal 
pump.  Steam  should  be  supplied  from  water  tube  boilers  with 
a  minimum  heating  surface  of  2500  sq.  ft.  and  a  capacity  of  about 
300  horse  power.  A  double-cylinder  single-drum  engine  of  about 
20  h.p.  is  used  to  operate  the  suction  pipe.  A  deck  capstan  with 
independent  engines  is  desirable  for  handling  the  hull,  which 
should  be  about  110  ft.  long,  30  ft.  wide  and  5  ft.  deep.  The 
complete  dredge  will  cost  from  $30,000  to  $50,000  depending  on 
local  conditions,  market  prices,  etc. 

The  following  statement  gives  typical  operating  costs  for  a 
15-in.  hydraulic  dredge  on  levee  construction  on  the  Mississippi 
River.     The  labor  costs  are  for  two  12-hr,  shifts  per  day  and  do 
not  include  subsistence. 
Labor:  Per  month 

1  foreman $150 . 00 

1  engineman 125 . 00 

1  engineman 100 . 00 

2  suction  operators  @  $100 . 00. 200 . 00 

2  oilers,  @  $60.00 120.00 

2  firemen  @  $70.00 140.00 

2  coal  passers  @  $60.00 120.00 

3  deck  hands  @  $60.00 180.00 

1  levee  foreman  (day  shift) 90 . 00 

1  levee  foreman  (night  shift) 70 . 00 

10  levee  laborers  @  $60 .00 600 . 00 

Total  monthly  labor  cost $1895 . 00 

1  Abstracted  from  Engineering  News,  October  29,  1914. 


RECLAMATION  WORK  369 

fuel  and  Supplies: 

Coal,  300  tons  @  $4.00 $1200.00 

Supplies,  rope,  oil,  packing,  etc 150.00 


Total  cost  of  fuel  and  supplies . .  .   $1350 . 00 

Overhead  and  Miscellaneous: 

Repairs  and  renewals $200 . 00 

Office  and  overhead  expenses 200 . 00 

Insurance,  fire  and  liability 100 . 00 

Interest  and  depreciation  (2  per  cent,  of  $35,000) .       700 . 00 


Total  miscellaneous  expenses $1200 . 00 


Total  monthly  operating  cost $4445 . 00 

Total  monthly  output  of  dredge 75,000  cu.  yd. 

Cost  of  operation,  $4445.00  -5-  75,000  =  $0.059 

261.  Use  of  Hydraulic-fill  Method  in  Washington.1— The 
hydraulic-fill  method  of  earth  dam  construction  was  used  in  1908, 
1909  and  1910  in  the  construction  of  the  Conconcully  Dam,  which 
forms  a  part  of  the  Okanogan  Project  of  the  U.  S.  Reclamation 
Service  in  northern  Washington. 

The  dam  has  a  crest  length  of  1010  ft.,  a  crest  width  of  20  ft., 
a  maximum  height  of  66  ft.,  slopes  of  3  to  1  on  the  downstream 
face  and  of  2  to  1  on  the  upstream  face,  and  a  volume  of  351,500 
cubic  yards. 

The  material  used  in  the  construction  of  the  dam  consisted 
of  sand  and  silt  from  the  disintegration  of  granite.  The  borrow 
pits  were  located  on  the  mountain  side  above  the  dam  and  adja- 
cent to  one  end.  The  material  contained  considerable  silt  and 
also  coarser  material  of  rock  fragments  up  to  a  cubic  yard  in 
size. 

The  sluicing  of  the  borrow  pits  was  affected  by  giants  with 
2-in.  to  3j^-in.  nozzles  and  supplies  with  feed  water  brought  down 
the  mountain  side  through  14-in.  No.  16  steel  slip-joint  pipes. 
Each  giant  consumed  from  1  %  to  5J£  cu-  ft-  °f  water.  The  supply 
pressure  on  the  main  flume  varied  from  114  ft.  to  170  feet.  The 
main  supply  flume  was  a  ditch  which  ran  along  the  lower  edge 
of  the  borrow  pits  and  then  proceeded  on  a  high  trestle  to  the 
site  of  the  dam.  Here  the  flume  connected  with  lateral  flumes 
which  were  located  along  the  edges  of  the  slopes  and  parallel  to 

1  Compiled  from  Transactions  of  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers 
December,  1911,  Vol.  LXXIV. 

24 


370     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

the  longitudinal  axis  of  the  structure.  These  flumes  had  4  per 
cent,  grades,  and  the  material  was  discharged  at  several  delivery 
points  in  rows  of  cone-shaped  piles,  forming  ridges.  Deflecting 
screens,  spouts,  etc.,  were  used  to  direct  the  coarser  material 
toward  the  outside  slopes.  The  material  carried  toward  the 
pond  in  the  center  of  the  embankment  was  the  fine  sand  and  silt, 
the  coarser  material  settling  out  along  the  inner  slopes  of  the 
ridges.  As  the  dam  built  up  and  the  upper  surface  narrowed, 
the  coarse  material  extended  to  a  great  extent  across  the  section 
and  it  became  necessary  to  break  up  the  material  by  the  use  of 
paddles  and  finally  to  introduce  an  artificial  core  composed  of 
fine,  loamy  sand.  This  core  was  started  at  an  elevation  of 
14  ft.  above  the  general  base  of  the  dam  and  carried  to  a  point 
39  ft.  above  high-water  line.  The  material  was  hauled  in 
scrapers  up  to  a  platform,  from  which  it  was  sluiced  through  an 
8-in.  pipe  to  its  place  in  the  dam.  In  this  manner,  about 
16,600  cu.  yd.  of  material  were  placed  between  diaphragms  of 
1-in  boards. 

The  dam  was  built  to  a  super-elevation  of  1  ft.  across  the  valley, 
and  the  final  settlement  amounted  to  about  15,500  cu.  yd., 
the  greatest  settlement  at  any  point  being  3.9  ft. 

The  segregating  effect  of  the  water  resulted  in  an  increase  of 
dam  over  borrow  pit  measurement,  the  swell  in  volume  during 
the  first  season  being  about  12  per  cent,  but  decreasing  in 
magnitude  for  the  completed  work,  as  follows: 


Material  from  borrow  pits 349,455  cu.  yd. 

Loss  of  silt  from  pits  in  waste  water 20,000cu.  yd. 


Net  volume  in  dam,  pit  measurement 329,455  cu.  yd. 

Volume  of  dam  above  original  surface 336,000  cu.  yd. 

Volume  of  dam  below  original  surface 15,500  cu.  yd. 


Total  volume  of  dam 351,500  cu.  yd. 

Material  from  valley  pits , 11,600  cu.  yd. 


Material  from  side-hill  pits,  bank  measurement 339,900  cu.  yd. 

Swell,  3.2  per  cent 10,455  cu.  yd. 


The  cost  of  construction  of  the  dam  is  given  in  detail  in  the 
following  statement,.  The  labor  schedule,  based  on  an  8-hr, 
working  day  was  as  follows: 


RECLAMATION  WORK  371 

per  day 

Common  labor $2.25  to  $2.50 

Pitmen 2. 75  to    3.00 

Monitor  operators 3 . 00 

Powder  men 3  00 

Carpenters 4.00  to    4.50 

Foremen 5  00 

Hydraulicking: 

Plant ...  $69,099 . 00 

Supplies 11,783.00 

Labor..                                                               .  74,755.00 


Total  cost  of  sluicing $155,637  00 

Dam  Construction: 

Puddle  core $22,885.00 

Slopes ....        8,465.00 

Miscellaneous..  1,382.00 


Total  cost  of  dam  construction $32,732 .00 

Total  cost  of  earthwork .  .  188,369.00 

Total  material  handled 351,500  cu.  yd. 

Unitcostof  excavation, $188,369. 00  -^  351,500  =  $0.533. 

262.  Resume. — The  field  of  earthwork  operations  in  reclama- 
tion work  is  broad  and  varied,  and  offers  opportunities  for  the 
use  of  many  types  of  excavators.  The  proper  method  and  ma- 
chine to  use  in  any  case  depends  on  several  factors;  magnitude  of 
the  job,  area  over  which  the  work  extends,  nature  of  soil  to  be 
removed,  length  of  haul,  cost  and  availability  of  fuel,  labor,  etc., 
location  of  job  with  respect  to  transportation  facilities,  etc. 

On  a  small  job,  the  initial  cost  of  the  earth-handling  plant  may 
be  a  large  proportion  of  the  total  cost  of  the  work,  and  hence  it 
is  necessary  to  use  an  inexpensive  equipment.  In  the  case  of  a 
large  job,  however,  the  cost  of  a  large  and  expensive  equipment  can 
be  distributed  over  a  large  output  and  thus  only  slightly  affect 
the  unit  cost.  Where  the  amount  of  earthwork  at  any  section  is 
small  but  extends  over  a  considerable  area,  as  is  the  case  of  small 
canal  and  levee  work,  the  work  can  generally  be  most  efficiently 
executed  with  scrapers,  graders,  or  some  type  of  small,  portable 
excavator.  Where  the  work  is  of  considerable  magnitude  at 
any  section,  as  in  the  construction  of  large  open  channels,  levees, 
earth  dams,  etc.,  some  form  of  dry-land  or  floating  excavator 
should  be  used.  When  the  job  is  a  long  distance  from  a  line 


372     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

of  transportation,  the  cost  of  hauling,  and  the  scarcity  and  high 
cost  of  labor  and  fuel,  may  require  the  use  of  the  small,  portable 
types  -of  machinery. 

The  smaller  ditches  and  canals  should  be  made  wherever  pos- 
sible with  a  wheel  or  templet  excavator  to  secure  a  true  grade  and 
smooth  and  uniform  side  slopes.  These  machines  can  be  effi- 
ciently used  on  the  excavation  of  irrigation  and  drainage  channels 
when  the  soil  is  fairly  dry,  softer  than  hard-pan  or  indurated 
gravel  and  free  from  stumps,  large  stone  and  other  obstructions. 
Where  the  soil  conditions  are  unfavorable,  one  of  the  lighter, 
portable  forms  of  scraper-bucket  excavator  or  traction  shovel 
should  be  used.  In  wet,  swampy  lands  and  where  timber 
abounds,  the  small  floating-dipper  dredge  is  the  most  efficient 
form  of  machine,  even  when  the  size  of  the  hull  necessitates  the 
excavation  of  a  channel  considerably  larger  than  the  required 
section.  • 

The  larger  ditches  and  canals  can  be  most  efficiently  excavated 
with  the  scraper-bucket  or  drag-line  excavator,  the  floating 
dipper  or  ladder  dredge  and  the  cableway  excavator.  The  drag- 
line excavator  has  proved  its  efficiency  and  adaptability  over  a 
wide  range  of  soil  conditions,  and  can  handle  stumps,  large  stone 
and  other  obstructions  with  facility  by  means  of  the  direct  pull 
and  power  afforded  by  the  drag-line  cable.  The  wide  range  of 
operation  and  flexibility  of  this  machine  adapt  it  to  a  great  variety 
of  soil  and  topographic  conditions.  The  floating-dipper  dredge  is 
the  most  satisfactory  excavator  in  the  construction  of  open  chan- 
nels through  low,  wet,  swampy  land.  The  disadvantages  of  the 
use  of  this  machine  lie  largely  in  the  difficulty  of  securing  a  prism 
with  a  true  grade  and  smooth  uniform  side  slopes,  and  in  leaving 
clear,  clean  berms.  Great  skill  and  care  are  necessary  on  the 
part  of  the  operator  to  ensure  even  a  fairly  true  and  smooth  chan- 
nel. The  ladder  and  hydraulic  dredges  are  principally  useful 
in  the  excavation  of  very  large  wide  channels  where  there  is  ample 
space  for  the  swinging  of  the  dredge  and  the  excavation  of  a 
true  and  uniform  prism  is  not  necessary. 

The  various  forms  of  cableway  excavator  are  being  success- 
fully adapted  to  the  excavation  of  wide  channels  in  dry  soils. 
The  original  form  of  single-tower  excavator,  used  20  years 
ago  on  the  Chicago  Drainage  Canal  has  been  developed  recently 
(1913-18)  into  a  two-tower  machine  which  moves  along  the  axis 
of  the  channel  and  operates  a  drag-line  bucket  on  the  principle 


RECLAMATION  WORK  373 

of  the  taut  line  or  the  slack  line.  The  relative  efficiency  of  these 
two  methods  of  operating  a  cableway  excavator  has  not  been 
sufficiently  well-established  to  make  a  definite  statement.  How- 
ever, these  machines  of  both  types  are  being  continually  improved 
and  later  developments  in  the  smoothness  of  operation  and  con- 
trol of  the  bucket  will  doubtless  greatly  increase  their  usefulness 
and  efficiency. 

The  excavation  of  dense,  hard  material  in  the  preparation  of 
the  foundations  of  dams  and  other  structures  can  be  most  effi- 
ciently handled  by  power  shovels.  The  scraper-bucket  excavator 
can  also  be  used  to  advantage  where  the  material  is  sufficiently 
loose  or  well-broken  up  to  be  handled  directly.  In  work  of  this 
class,  the  cableway  is  a  very  efficient  tool  to  use  for  the  raising 
and  transporting  of  skips  or  buckets,  which  are  loaded  by  the 
excavators  working  on  the  lower  levels  of  the  excavation. 

The  construction  of  small  levees  and  earth  embankments  can 
be  economically  done  with  the  wheel  scraper  and  the  grader. 
The  constant  compacting  given  an  embankment  during  construc- 
tion by  the  movement  of  the  teams  is  an  important  factor  in 
securing  density  and  imperviousness.  For  work  of  any  consider- 
able magnitude,  the  large  power  excavator  should  be  employed ; 
the  proper  type  of  machine  for  any  case  depending  on  local  con- 
ditions of  topography,  soil,  fuel  and  transportation  conditions, 
etc.  The  power  shovel  has  been  most  universally  used  for  the 
excavation  of  hard  soil  such  as  hard-pan  and  rock.  The  material 
is  taken  from  borrow  pits,  loaded  into  wagons  or  trains  of  dump 
cars  and  hauled  to  the  site  of  the  embankment.  The  drag-line 
excavator  can  often  be  used  to  great  advantage  in  levee  construc- 
tion by  one  handling  of  the  material  from  borrow  pit  to  embank- 
ment, doing  away  with  the  use  of  transportation  equipment. 

The  construction  of  levees  involves  capacity,  the  ability  to 
rapidly  transport  material  over  wide  areas  and  the  proper  com- 
pacting of  the  material.  In  the  early  days  of  flood  protection 
work,  along  the  Mississippi  River  the  scraper  and  wheelbarrow 
were  universally  used.  In  the  former  days  of  plentiful  and 
cheap  labor  these  tools  were  efficient  and  fairly  economical, 
but  present-day  conditions  of  scarce  and  high-priced  labor  and 
work  of  great  magnitude  have  developed  the  use  of  large,  power- 
operated  machines  of  great  capacity.  The  floating-dipper  dredge 
is  suitable  for  the  building  of  small  levees  along  the  smaller 
streams.  However,  when  the  embankment  contains  over  1000 


374      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTti 

cu.  yd.  per  station  of  100  ft.,  the  " reach"  of  the  machine  is  not 
sufficient  to  properly  excavate  the  borrow  pit  and  place  the  levee. 
In  such  cases,  even  in  low,  wet  soils,  the  drag-line  excavator  can 
be  used  to  great  advantage.  When  the  soil  conditions  are  such 
as  to  require  the  use  of  a  floating  excavator,  the  grab-bucket 
machine  with  a  long  boom  and  mounted  on  a  barge  is  the  most 
efficient  type.  These  machines  are  built  with  booms  up  to  125 
ft.  in  length  and  with  a  capacity  of  3000  cu.  yd.  per  11-hr, 
shift.  The  templet  excavator  can  be  successfully  used  where 
the  soil  is  not  too  hard  and  is  fairly  free  'from  stumps,  large  stone 
and  other  obstructions.  The  machine  excavates  a  borrow  pit 
of  smooth  and  uniform  cross-section  and  deposits  the  material 
in  even  layers  on  the  embankment. 

The  principal  objection  to  the  use  of  any  large  power  excavator 
is  the  difficulty  of  securing  a  uniform  distribution  of  the  material 
and  a  dense  embankment.  Although  the  material  drops  from 
the  bucket  of  a  machine  excavator  with  considerable  force, 
yet  the  resulting  consolidation  in  the  bank  is  generally  " spotty" 
and  uneven.  The  only  satisfactory  method  to  use  in  order  to 
overcome  this  difficulty  is  to  deposit  the  material  in  uniform 
and  shallow  layers,  which  are  successively  spread  and  rolled. 

263.  Bibliography. — For  further  information,  the  reader  is 
referred  to  the  following: 

Books 

1.  "The  Dikes  of  Holland,"  by  G.  H.  MATTHES. 

2.  "Drainage  of  Irrigated  Lands  in  San  Joaquin  Valley,  California,"  by 
SAMUEL  FORTIER  and  VICTOR  McCoNE.     Bulletin  217,  published  by  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture. 

3.  "Engineering  for  Land  Drainage,"  by  C.  G.  ELLIOTT,  published  by 
John   Wiley   &  Sons,  New  York.     5  in.   X  7K  in.,  339  pages,  60  figures. 
Cost,  $1.80. 

4.  "Excavating  Machinery,"  by  J.  O.  WRIGHT.     Bulletin  published  in 
1904  by  Department  of  Drainage  Investigation  of  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 

5.  "Excavating  Machinery  Used  in  Land  Drainage,"  by  D.  L.  YARNELL. 
No.  300,  published  in  1915  by  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

6.  "The  Improvement  of  Rivers,"  by  THOMAS  and  WATT,  published  in 
1903  by  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  New  York.     9  in.  X  11>£  in.,  772  pages,  83 
figures.     Cost,  $7.50. 

7.  "Regulation  of  Rivers,"  by  J.  L.  VAN  ORNUM,  published  in  1914  by 
McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  New  York.     6  in.    X  9  in.,  404  pages,  99 
figures.     Cost,  $4.00. 


RECLAMATION  WORK  375 

Magazine  Articles 

1.  Blasting  a  Pit  for  a  Dipper  Dredge.     Engineering  News,  June  24,  1915. 
Illustrated,  300  words. 

2.  Boat  for  Sloping  Canal  Banks.     Engineering  Record,  May  23,  1914. 
Illustrated,  600  words. 

3.  Building   Levees    with    the    Hydraulic    Dredge.     Engineering   News, 
October  29,  1914.     Illustrated,  2500  words. 

4.  Canalization  of  Half-Million  Acre  Drainage  District  Discloses  Canal- 
Width  Limit.     Engineering   Record,    August   5,     1916.     Illustrated,    1500 
words. 

5.  Clam-shell  Dredge  with  95  ft.  Boom.     Engineering  News,  March  1, 
1917.     Illustrated,  1400  words. 

6.  The  Colorado  River  Silt  Problem,  The  Dredge  "Imperial"  and  Irri- 
gation in  Imperial  Valley,  California.     Engineering  News,   December  14, 
1911.     Illustrated,  5000  words. 

7.  Construction   Features  of   Bear  Creek   Hydraulic-Fill   Dam,  Jordan 
River  Development,  Vancouver  Island,  British  Columbia.     Engineering  & 
Contracting,  May  21,  1913.     Illustrated,  7000  words. 

8.  Construction  Methods  and  Plant  for  Diversion  and  Drainage  Work. 
Engineering  Record,  December  5,  1914.     Illustrated,  2000  words. 

9.  Construction  Plant  Controls   Minimum   Drainage  Ditch  and  Levee 
Sections.     Engineering  Record,  May  27,  1916.     Illustrated,  1000  words. 

10.  The  Construction  of  Hydraulic-Fill  Levees.     Engineering  News,  June 
11,  1914.     Illustrated,  1500  words. 

11.  The  Construction  of  the  Levee  Below  the  Recent  Colorado  River 
Break,  C.  W.  OZIAS.     Engineering  News,  May  16,  1907.     Illustrated,  1800 
words. 

12.  Construction  Features  and  Methods  in  the  Little  River  Drainage 
District,  B.  F.  BURNS.     Engineering  &  Contracting,  March  21,  1917.     Illus- 
trated, 1700  words. 

13.  Cost  of   Excavating    Drainage    Ditches   with   Steam   and   Electric 
Machines.     Engineering  Record,  December  26,  1914.     2000  words. 

14.  Dam  Building  at  7  Cents  a  Yard.     Engineering  Record,  July  11,  1914. 
Illustrated,  1800  words. 

15.  Dike  at  Herring  River,  Wellfleet,  Massachusetts,  FRANK  W.  HODGDON. 
Engineering  News,  August  11,  1910.     1200  words. 

16.  Ditching  with  Capstan  Plows.     Engineering  News,  February  3,  1916. 
Illustrated,  1200  words. 

17.  Dragline  Excavator  Does  Speedy  Work  in  Dredging  Channel.     Engi- 
neering Record,  February  13,  1915.     Illustrated,  200  words. 

18.  Dragline  Excavation  Methods  in  Construction  of  Winnipeg  Aqueduct. 
Engineering  &  Contracting,  March  21,  1917.     Illustrated,  1000  words. 

19.  Dragline  Work  on  the  South  River  Drainage  District  No.  2.     Excavat- 
ing Engineer,  March,  1917.     Illustrated,  1500  words. 

20.  The  Drainage  of  the  Valley  of  Mexico.     Engineering  Record,  August 
10,  1901. 

21.  Dredging  Contractor  Must  Keep  in  Close  Personal  Touch  with  Work. 
Engineering  Record,  December  30,  1916.     1500  words. 


376      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

22.  Dredging  Equipment  for  Any  Contract  Should  be  Chosen  to  Fit 
Exactly  the  Conditions  Expected.     Engineering  Record,  December  16,  1916. 
Illustrated,  2500  words. 

23.  Dredges  for  Levee   Building,   ENOS   BROWN.     Scientific  American, 
December  20,  1902.     Illustrated,  500  words. 

24.  Electric  Dragline  Work  on  the  Sun  River  Reclamation  Project.     Ex- 
cavating Engineer,  February,  1916.     Illustrated,  3000  words. 

25.  Electrically  Driven  Dragline  Scrapers  Dig  45  Mile  Irrigation  Canal. 
Engineering  Record,  January  29,  1916.     Illustrated,  2000  words. 

26.  Excavation  for  Foundation  of  Elephant  Butte  Dam.     Engineering 
News,  January  14,  1915.     Illustrated,  3500  words. 

27.  Excavation  for  the  Arrowrock  Dam.     Engineering  News,  July  17, 
1913.     Illustrated,  4500  words. 

28.  Excavating  Plant  for  Heavy  Drainage  Work  in  Arkansas.     Engi- 
neering Record,  January  9,  1915.     Illustrated,  1000  words. 

28.  Excavating  Plant  for  Heavy  Drainage  Work  in  Arkansas.     Engi- 
neering Record,  January  9,  1915.     Illustrated,  1000  words. 

29.  Excavation  for  the  Baldwin  Reservoir.     Engineering  News,  May  4, 
1916.     Illustrated,  1200  words. 

30.  Excavation  of  Hill  View  Reservoir.     Engineering  News,  September  9, 
1915.     Illustrated,  4000  words. 

31.  Gasoline    Dragline   Operation   on   the   Yuma   Project.     Excavating 
Engineer,  May,  1917.     Illustrated,  1300  words. 

32.  Hydraulic-Fill  and  Wheeled-Scraper  for  Levees.     Engineering  News, 
July  27,  1916.     Illustrated,  1900  words. 

33.  In  a  Good  Dredging  Crew  Men  are  Trained  to  Fill  Positions  Above 
Them.     Engineering  Record,  December  23,  1916.     1800  words. 

34.  A  Land  Drainage  Problem  in  Missouri.     Engineering  News,  Septem- 
ber 17,  1914.     Illustrated,  3000  words. 

35.  Land  Drainage  in  Louisiana.     Engineering  News,  August  14,  1913. 
Illustrated,  3000  words. 

36.  Large  Clam-Shell  Dredges;  Levee  Building  Methods  and  Standards 
in  California.     Engineering  News,   September   4,  1913.     Illustrated,  1200 
words. 

37.  Large  Levee  and  Drainage  System  in  Indiana.     Engineering  News, 
January  11,  1917.     Illustrated,  1800  words. 

38.  Levee  Building  by  Dragline  Excavator  on  the  Mississippi  River. 
Excavating  Engineer,  August,  1916.     Illustrated,  2800  words. 

39.  Levee  Building  with   Bucket  Excavator  Dredge  Equipment  with 
Stern  Delivery  Stacker.     Mining  and  Science  Press,  April  18,  1914.     Illus- 
trated, 700  words. 

40.  Levee  Construction  by  Dragline  Excavator.     Excavating  Engineer, 
May,  1913.     Illustrated,  1500  words. 

41.  Levee  Building  Machines.     Professional  Memoirs,  U.  S.  Army,  May- 
June,  1916.     Illustrated,  11  pages. 

42.  Maintenance   Excavator  at   Orland   Reclamation   Project  in   Cali- 
fornia.    Engineering  Record,  April  11,  1914.     Illustrated,  1000  words. 

43.  The  Maintenance  of  Drainage  Ditches.     Engineering  News,  May  6, 
1915.     350  words. 


RECLAMATION  WORK  377 

44.  Mammoth  Electric  Draglines  Dig  Diversion  Channels  and  Construct 
Levees.     Engineering  Record,  June  24,  1916.     Illustrated,  2500  words. 

45.  Method  of  Construction  and  Maintaining  Peat  Levees,  NATHANIEL 
ELLERY.     Engineering-Contracting,  October  27,  1909. 

46.  Methods  and  Cost  of  Constructing  Sand  Core  Levee  in  the  Sacra- 
mento Valley.     Engineering   &   Contracting,   April  29,    1914.     Illustrated, 
1500  words. 

47.  Methods  and  Cost  of  Levee  Enlargement  with  a  Tower  Dragline 
Excavator.     Engineering  &  Contracting,  May  12,  1915.     Illustrated. 

48.  Methods  of  Excavating  by  Machinery,  C.  G.  CALMAN.     Common- 
wealth  Engineer,  May,  1917.     Illustrated,  1500  words. 

49.  Modern    Machinery    for    Excavating    and    Dredging.     Engineering 
Magazine,  March  and  April,  1903. 

50.  Moving  $500,000  Worth  of  Dirt  on  Vincennes,  Ind.,  Levee  Job,  S.  E. 
BATES.     Contractor,  November  1,  1916.     Illustrated,  2500  words. 

51.  New  Type  of  Traveling  Excavator  for  Ditches.     Engineering  Record, 
December  12,  1914.     Illustrated,  1000  words. 

52.  Pitchforks,  Centrifugal  Pumps  and  160-Ton  Draglines  Dig  Aqueduct 
Ditch  Through  Muskeg  Bogs,  WILLIAM  SMAILL.     Engineering  News-Record, 
April  19,  1917.     Illustrated,  4500  words. 

53.  Progress   of   Excavation   on   the   Winnipeg    Aqueduct.     Excavating 
Engineer,  January,  1917.     Illustrated,  2000  words. 

54.  The  Pumping  Dredge  used  in  Reclaiming  Land.     Engineering  Record, 
February  13,  1892. 

55.  Reconstruction   of   the   Mississippi   River  Levee  at   Helena,    Ark. 
Engineering  News,  March  19,  1914.     Illustrated,  1200  words. 

56.  Reducing  the  Cost  of  Drainage  Excavation.     Engineering  Record, 
December  26,  1914.     1200  words. 

57.  River  Diversion  and  Flood  Control  in  Missouri.     Engineering  News, 
August  24,  1916.     Illustrated,  3000  words. 

58.  Scraper   Dragged  from   Extension   Boom   Cleans   Berm  of   Ditch. 
Engineering  Record,  June  5,  1915.     300  words. 

59.  Small   Dragline   Succeeds  in   Tough   Ditching   in   Peat   Bog   Near 
Bridgeport,    Conn.     Excavating  Engineer,   April,   1917.     Illustrated,   1800 
words. 

60.  Some  Records  of  Steam  Shovel  Ditch  Excavation.     Engineering  & 
Contracting,  February  26,  1913.     2500  words. 

61.  Steam  Shovel  Operation  on  the  East  St.  Louis  Levee  Project.     Ex- 
cavating Engineer,  March,  1917.     Illustrated,  1200  words.  • 

62.  Steam  Shovel  Work  at   Ashokan   Reservoir.     Engineering  Record, 
October  3,  1914.     Illustrated,  2000  words. 


CHAPTER  XX 
RIVERS,  HARBORS  AND  CANALS 

264.  Preliminary. — The   construction   and   improvements   of 
rivers,  harbors  and  canals  is  largely  a  matter  of  the  efficient  use 
of  the  larger  types  of  power  excavators.     The  three  branches  of 
the  subject  are  distinctive  and  involve  so  many  special  elements 
that  they  will  be  treated  separately  in  the  following  discussion 
of  the  use  of  excavating  machinery  in  the  regulation  of  rivers, 
the  construction  and  maintenance  of  channels  in  lakes  and  har- 
bors, and  the  construction  of  barge  and  ship  canals. 

I.  RIVERS 

265.  General. — The  regulation  of  rivers  has  become  a  very 
important  matter  in  the  Middle  West,  where  the  maintenance 
of  channels  and  the  construction  of  flood  prevention  and  protec- 
tion works  are  increasingly  necessary  for  the  purpose  of  inland 
navigation  and  public  safety.     The  three  best  known  methods 
of  river  improvement  are;  by  the  regulation  of  the  river,  by  ca- 
nalization, and  by  dredging.     The  latter  may  be  considered  as  a 
special  form  of  regulation  and  is  often  employed  in  connection 
with  artificial  works  of  regulation.     However,  in  recent  years, 
experience  has  shown  that  periodic  dredging  is  often  more  effi- 
cacious and  economical  than  the  construction  of  permanent 
works  such  as  deflectors,  training  walls,  dikes,  spurs,  etc.     This 
method  avoids  the  large  initial  expense  of  permanent  regulation 
works,  which  establish  a  fixed  form  of  improvement  that  may 
be   later    unsuited   for    growing   and    developing    commercial 
conditions.     This  is  especially  true  as  regards  the  maintenance 
of  channels  in  the  large  alluvial  rivers  of  the  middle  western 
section  of  this  country. 

The  dredging  of  a  river  channel  should  be  done  so  as  to  assist 
the  stream  in  the  construction  and  the  later  maintenance  of  the 
new  channel.  The  excavation  should  proceed  downstream, 
this  method  being  more  effective  because  it  removes  the  entire 
prism,  produces  a  less  strain  on  the  anchorages,  and  facilitates  the 
formation  of  a  strong  current  which  assists  in  the  work  by  its 
erosive  action.  The  location  and  direction  of  the  new  channel 
should  be  such  that  the  prevailing  river  currents  will  follow  the 
new  channel  and  serve  to  keep  it  flushed  out  and  open.  This 

378 


RIVERS,  HARBORS  AND  CANALS  379 

matter  requires  a  careful  study  of  the  physics  of  a  river,  and  the 
lines  of  probable  maximum  current  energy  should  be  determined 
before  dredging  operations  begin. 

Ordinarily  the  excavated  material  should  be  deposited  at  a 
sufficient  distance  from  the  channel  to  preclude  any  possibility  of 
its  being  washed  back.  However,  in  many  cases,  this  material 
may  be  effectively  utilized  in  the  filling-in  of  adjacent  pools  or 
the  construction  of  dikes  to  deflect  and  confine  the  water  within 
the  new  channel. 

Alluvial  rivers  of  unstable  regimen  require  frequent  dredging 
to  maintain  the  channels,  although  only  a  portion  of  the  cuts  re- 
quire renewal  if  their  location  has  been  properly  determined.  In 
the  case  of  rivers  of  more  stable  regimen,  and  dense,  firm  bed 
material,  the  dredged  channels  will  remain  nearly  permanent 
and  require  very  little  if  any  maintenance. 

The  type  of  excavator  to  be  used  in  dredging  depends  on  the 
size  and  character  of  the  stream,  the  kind  of  material  to  be  ex- 
cavated, the  disposition  of  the  spoil,  the  magnitude  of  the  work, 
etc.  The  various  types  in  general  use  will  be  discussed  in  the 
following  articles. 

266.  Floating-dipper  Dredges. — The  dipper  dredge  has  certain 
special  qualities  of  simple  action,  positive  control  and  definite 
application  of  power  in  digging.     These  factors  make  this  machine 
especially  useful  in  the  excavation  of  dense,  hard  material  at 
moderate  depths.     Dipper  dredges  are  of  little  value  in  the 
dredging  of  alluvial  rivers  except  near  their  mouths,  or  for  the 
removal  of  bars  of  stiff,  tenacious  material.     They  are  especially 
adapted  to  the  maintenance  of  channels  in  improved  rivers, 
where  the  regimen  is  stable  and  slight. 

267.  Use  of  Dipper  Dredges  on  Ohio  River.1— The  U.  S. 
Government  during  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30, 1911,  used  two 
dipper  dredges  on  channel  improvement  on  the  Ohio  River  below 
Pittsburgh. 

The  dredges  were  the  "Ohio"  and  "Oswego"  and  were 
equipped  with  buckets  of  2.7  cu.  yd.  capacity. 

The  "Oswego"  excavated  during  the  year,  122,967  cu.  yd.  of 
sand,  gravel,  clay,  boulders  and  cemented  gravel,  93.67  tons 
of  rock,  and  18.7  tons  of  snags.  The  cost  of  excavating  the  sand, 
gravel,  clay,  etc.,  was  16.85  cents  per  cubic  yard,  and  for  remov- 
ing rock  and  snags  was  $3.79  per  ton.  The  dredge  operated  189.4 

1  Abstracted  from  Report  of  Chief  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  Army. 


380     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


days,  the  effective  working  time  being  103.67  days  and  the  time 
lost  by  bad  weather,  repairs,  Sundays,  holidays,  etc.,  was 89. 72  days. 
The  following  statement  gives  the  cost  of  excavation  for  the  two 
dredges  for  the  fiscal  year.  The  high  cost  was  due  to  the  diffi- 
culty of  removing  the  cemented  gravel  at  Five  Mile  Bar,  during 
a  low  stage  of  water,  and  also  due  .to  long  distance  hauling  of 
the  excavated  material. 


Dredge  "Oswego" 

Dredge  "Ohio" 

General  supplies  and  expenses  
Towing  and  fuel 

$1,824.31 
8,308  47 

$1,789.40 
9,256.64 

Repairs  

2,373.71 

2,211.22 

Salaries 

7,906.59 

8,126.01 

Subsistence  

312.90 

320.25 

Launch 

312.90 

398.43 

Total.           ...                  

$21,038.88 

$22,101.95 

I.    Use  of  Clam-shell  Dredges  in  North  Carolina. — The 

Corps  of  Engineers  of  the  U.  S.  Army  used  two  clam-shell  dredges 
in  the  clearing  of  the  channel  of  the  Cape  Fear  River,  at  and 
below  Wilmington,  North  Carolina,  during  the  fiscal  year  ending 
June  30,  1911.  The  dredges  were  used  in  clearing  out  the  full 
channel  to  a  depth  of  10  ft.  and  in  removing  shoals.  The  material 
excavated  was  silt  and  sand. 

The  following  is  a  statement  of  the  cost  of  operation  of  the 
dredge  "  Hercules/7  equipped  with  a  7-yd.  clam-shell  bucket. 

Operation $20,566.06 

Tug  for  towing 13,551 . 12 

Superintendence  and  surveys 2,642 . 00 

Office  expenses 837.00 

One-half  re-handling  of  215,560  cu.  yd.  material  by  dredge 

"Jacksonville" 8,622.42 

Total  cost $46,218.60 

Unit  cost  of  excavation $0 . 082  per  cu.  yd. 

The  dredge  "Ajax,"  equipped  with  a  5-yd.  clam-shell  bucket  made  the 
following  record: 

Operation $17,963.82 

Tugs  for  towing 10,507. 14 

Superintendence  and  surveys 2,176 . 00 

Office  expenses 689.00 

One-half  re-handling  of  215,516  cu.  yd.  material  by  dredge 

"Jacksonville" 8,622.42 

Total  cost $39,963.38 

Unit  cost  of  excavation $0.074  per  cu.  yd. 


RIVERS,  HARBORS  AND  CANALS  381 

Fig.  171  shows  an  orange-peel  dredge  on  river  improvement. 


269.  Use  of  Dipper  Dredge  in  Tennessee.1 — The   Corps  of 
i  Abstracted  from  Report  of  Chief  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  Army. 


382     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


Engineers  of  the  U.  S.  Army  used  a  dipper  dredge,  during  the 
fiscal  year  ending  June  30, 1912  in  the  clearing  out  of  the  channel 
of  the  Tennessee  River.  The  operations  consisted  in  the  removal 
of  112,500  cu.  yd.  of  silt  and  5700  cu.  yd.  of  rock  from  a  low 
water  depth  of  2.5  ft.  to  a  depth  of  6  feet. 

The  dredge  used  was  the  "  Kentucky"  and  consisted  of  a  steel 
hull  100  ft.  long,  34  ft.  wide  and  6  ft.  10  in.  deep,  equipped 
with  a  45-ft.  boom  and  two  dippers,  one  of  2  yd.  capacity  and 
one  of  4  yd.  capacity.  The  machine  was  built  in  1900  at  a 
cost  of  $36,300.00  and  re-built  by  the  government  in  1908. 


FIG.  172. — U.  S.  dipper  dredge  on  river  improvement. 

The  hourly  output  of  the  dredge  averaged  about  200  cu.  yd.  of 
silt  and  sand  and  15  cu.  yd.  of  rock.  A  view  of  the  dredge  in 
operation  is  given  in  Fig.  172. 

The  following  is  the  operating  record  of  the  dredge  for  the  year : 

Days  in  operation 165 

Hours  in  operation  per  day 8 

Distance  to  dump,  miles 0.5 

Number  of  scows  loaded  per  day 25 

Average  scow  load,  cu.  yd 60 

Loading  time  of  scow,  hours:  p°C 

Maximum  output  per  hour,  cu.  yd 200 

Maximum  output  per  day,  cu.  yd 1750 

Repairs,  hull 60      days 


Time  lost,  days: 


Repairs,  machinery 16      days 


Weather. 
Shifting. 


75 
3 


days 
days 


Total  time  lost.  ....... , 154      days 


RIVERS,  HARBORS  AND  CANALS  383 

The  following  statement  gives  the  cost  of  operation  of  the 
dredge  during  the  year. 

Labor $7,900 

Coal 1,600 

Kerosene 36 

Lubricating  oil 65 

Food 2,000 

Supplies:  Machinery  1>000 

Laundry,  ice,  etc 144 

Miscellaneous 125 

Total  dredge  cost $12,870 

Towboat  operations 8,374 

Scow  and  barge  repairs 200 


Total  field  cost. ...  ...    $21,444 

Office  expenses,  superintendence,  survey,  etc 1,800 


Grand  total ...    $23,244 

Unit  cost  of  excavation  (estimated):  Silt  and  sand $0. 15  per  cu.  yd 

Rock 1 . 00  per  cu.  yd 

270.  Ladder  Excavators. — The  ladder  dredge  is  a  machine  of 
rather  a  restricted  field  of  use  as  compared  with  the  dipper  dredge 
which  has  always  been  the  popular  form  of  floating  excavator  in 
the  United  States.     Hence,  the  ladder  dredge  has  never  come 
into  popular  favor  with  contractors  and  has  been  little  used  in 
this  country.     However,   with  a  better  understanding  of  the 
limitations  of  this  type  of  dredge,  its  use  will  doubtless  become 
more  extended  in  the  near  future. 

The  high  cost  of  construction  and  of  operation  require  that  the 
dredge  be  in  use  a  large  proportion  of  the  available  working 
period  in  order  to  justify  its  investment  and  secure  low  dredging 
costs.  The  requirements  for  successful  operation  are  work  of 
great  magnitude  and  ample  space  for  manipulation  and  these 
are  seldom  met  with  on  river  improvement  work.  There  are  a 
few  noteworthy  examples  of  the  successful  use  of  ladder  dredges 
in  river  channel  maintenance  and  these  cases  will  be  described 
in  the  two  following  articles. 

271.  Use    of    Ladder    Dredges    in  Canada. — The  Canadian 
Government  for  several  years  has  used  ladder  dredges  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  channel  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River  from 
Quebec  to  Montreal.     This  work  comprised  the  annual  removal 
of  from  1,500,000  cu.  yd.  to  2,500,000  cu.  yd.  of  material  over 


384     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

a  length  of  about  60  miles  of  river.  The  original  depth  of  water 
was  about  11  ft.,  and  the  present  channel  has  a  depth  of  30  ft. 
at  low  water  and  a  minimum  width  of  450  feet. 

Six  dredges  with  1-yd.  buckets  and  an  average  daily  output  of 
about  5000  cu.  yd.  are  employed  on  this  work.  The  record  out- 
put for  one  of  these  dredges  is  5740  cu.  yd.  per  day  for  a  period 
of  21  days. 

The  ordinary  channel  width  of  450  ft.  is  made  in  one  cut 
feeding  laterally.  The  width  of  channel  at  the  bends  is  from 
600  ft.  to  750  ft.  and  this  cut  is  made  the  full  size  at  one  time 
by  lateral  feeding.  The  dredge  is  manipulated  by  wire  cables 
carried  about  2000  ft.  ahead  and  supported  on  floats. 

272.  Use  of  Ladder  Dredge  in  Wisconsin.1 — A  ladder  dredge, 
built  by  the  Bucyrus  Company  of  South  Milwaukee,  Wis., 
was  used  by  the  U.  S.  Government  for  dredging  of  the  channel 
of  the  Fox  River  in  Wisconsin.  The  plant  consisted  of  a  dredge 
with  two  intermediate  and  one  delivery  scow,  which  were 
operated  either  in  line  or  without  the  use  of  one  or  both  of  the 
intermediate  scows.  Figure  173  gives  a  general  view  of  the  plant 
in  operation. 

The  dredge  was  a  regular  elevator  dredge,  equipped  with  a 
chain  of  39  buckets  of  5  ft.  capacity  each.  The  buckets  were 
provided  with  steel  teeth,  and  excavated  hard  material  up  to  a 
depth  of  10  feet.  One  stern  spud  provided  a  pivot  about  which 
the  dredge  could  swing  through  a  radius  of  80  ft.  and  covering 
a  channel  width  of  145  feet. 

The  bucket  chain  was  driven  by  a  9-in.  X  12-in.  double  revers- 
ing engine,  by  gearing,  which  also  operated  the  ladder  hoist.  A 
6-drum  winch,  driven  by  a  6-in.  X  6-in.  double-cylinder  engine, 
was  used  to  operate  the  anchor,  spud  lines,  etc.  A  walking  spud 
operated  by  a  steam  cylinder  was  used  to  move  the  dredge.  The 
belt  conveyors  on  the  dredge  and  the  scows  were  operated  by 
electric  motors  supplied  with  current  from  a  35-k.w.  electric 
generator,  driven  by  a  10-in.  X  10-in.  engine  on  the  dredge. 
This  generator  also  supplied  current  for  lighting  the  plant  and 
power  to  a  6-in.  spray  pump  for  cleaning  the  belts.  Steam  was 
furnished  by  a  Scotch-marine  boiler  9  ft.  in  diameter  and  10 
ft.  in  length,  waterback  type  and  equipped  with  two  Adamson 
furnaces  35  in.  in  diameter.  The  delivery  scow  was  provided 

1  Abstracted  from  Engineering  News,  October  25,  1906. 


RIVERS,  HARBORS  AND  CANALS 


385 


with  a  winch  operated  by  an  electric  motor  and  used  for  operating 
the  anchor  lines,  gantry  and  spud. 

The. hulls  were  built  of 
Oregon  fir  and  strongly 
braced  and  bolted  together. 
The  dredge  was  75  ft.  long, 
31  ft.  wide  and  6  ft.  deep. 
Quarters  for  the  crew  were 
provided  on  the  upper 
deck,  where  the  pilot  house 
was  also  located,  whence 
the  operator  had  complete 
control  of  the  operation  of 
the  plant  and  from  which  a 
view  of  the  whole  work 
was  afforded. 

The  intermediate  scows 
were  40  ft.  long,  16  ft. 
wide  and  3  ft.  deep,  each 
carrying  a  belt  conveyor 
65  ft.  long.  The  delivery 
scow  was  trapezoidal  in 
shape,  having  a  length  of 
31  ft.  4  in.,  16  ft.  4  in. 
wide  and  2  ft.  deep  at  the 
receiving  end  and  33  ft. 
4  in.  wide  and  4  ft.  deep  at 
the  delivery  end.  The  hull 
was  given  this  shape  so  as 
to  support  the  overhanging 
load  of  the  delivery  con- 
veyor and  to  secure  a 
greater  angle  of  gyration 
when  the  scow  is  attached 
to  the  dredge. 

The  capacity  of  the 
dredge  averaged  200  cu. 
yd.  per  hour  in  tough  clay 
and  hard-pan  under  ad- 
verse conditions.  The  pre- 
liminary test  showed  a  capacity  of  400  cu.  yd.  per  hour  in  ordinary 

25 


386      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

soil  under  favorable  conditions.  Most  of  the  water  raised  by  the 
buckets  was  lost  on  the  conveyors  and  the  excavated  material 
was  deposited  along  the  banks  in  a  nearly  solid  condition.  The 
crew  of  the  plant  consisted  of  9  men  and  the  cost  of  operation 
averaged  about  $30.00  per  day. 

273.  Hydraulic  Dredges. — The  hydraulic  dredge  has  under- 
gone   a    great    development    during    the    last    25    years    to 
supply  the  increasing  demand  for  an  excavator  for  the  main- 
tenance of  the  channels  of  the  navigable  rivers  of  this  country. 
The  requirements  for  this  class  of  earthwork  are  for  an  excavator 
of  great  capacity,  power  and  high  economy  in  the  removal  of 
great   quantities   of  rather   loose,    soft   material.     As   a  result 
of  many  years  of  investigation  and  trial,  the  Corps  of  Engineers 
of  the  U.  S.  Army  has  adopted  the  hydraulic  dredge  as  the  type 
of  excavator  best  adapted  for  this  class  of  work.     The  Mississippi 
River  Commission  has  been  using  a  fleet  of  hydraulic  dredges 
(about  10  in  number)   during  the  past   14  years  (since  1904) 
in  the  maintenance  of  a  channel  in  the  lower  Mississippi. 

Originally  the  suction  dredge  was  used  largely  for  silt  and  sand 
excavation,  but  recent  experience  with  new  types  of  cutters  and 
the  use  of  the  water  jet  for  loosening  the  material  has  demon- 
strated the  practicability  of  its  efficient  use  in  the  excavation 
of  the  more  tenacious  materials  such  as  clay. 

274.  Use  of  Hydraulic  Dredge  in  Washington. — As  a  recent 
example  of  the  use  of  electric  power  in  the  operation  of  a  hydraulic 
dredge,  the  following  description  of  the  dredge  " Washington" 
will  be  given. 

This  dredge  was  built  by  the  Tacoma  Dredging  Company  of 
Tacoma,  Washington,  for  the  dredging  out  of  the  Puyallup 
River  in  Tacoma  harbor.1 

The  dredge  was  operated  by  electric  power  taken  from  one  of 
the  60,000-volt,  60-cycle,  three-phase  transmission  lines  of  the 
Seattle  Tacoma  Power  Company.  This  voltage  was  stepped 
down  to  2300  volts  at  a  temporary  substation,  located  near  the 
scene  of  the  work.  From  the  substation  the  distributing  circuit 
was  carried  on  a  temporary  pole  line  along  the  water's  edge. 
The  switchboard  panel  in  the  pilot  house  of  the  dredge  was 
connected  to  the  distributing  circuit  by  a  three-phase  flexible 
cable,  of  sufficient  capacity  to  transmit  electric  power  equivalent 
to  a  total  of  1500  horse  power.  This  cable  was  carried  along  the 
1  Quoted  from  the  Electric  Journal,  March,  1910. 


f 

RIVERS,  HARBORS  AND  CANALS  387 

discharge  pipe,  from  which  it  extended  to  the  shore  line  at 
convenient  points. 

The  electrical  equipment  of  the  dredge  provided  for  the  opera- 
tion of  the  cutter,  the  spuds,  the  pump  and  the  several  auxiliaries. 

The  cutter  was  operated  by  a  wound-rotor  type,  150-h.p., 
2300- volt,  690-r.p.m.,  semi-enclosed  motor.  A  drum  type  revers- 
ing controller,  with  gird  resistance,  was  used  to  operate  the 
motor  from  the  pilot  house.  The  motor  was  equipped  with  a 
special  bearing  and  was  connected  to  the  cutter  by  double 
reduction  gearing.  The  whole  equipment  was  designed  to 
operate  at  the  angle  at  which  the  cutter  was  operating,  the  normal 
position  of  operation  being  at  an  angle  of  about  45  degrees  with 
the  horizontal. 

The  cutter  was  raised  and  lowered  by  a  direct-connected  hoist, 
which  was  driven  by  a  30-h.p.,  220-volt,  two-phase,  850-r.p.m., 
wound-rotor  type  motor.  This  motor  was  also  controlled  from 
the  pilot  house  by  a  drum  type  reversing  controller  with  gird 
resistance. 

Two  large  timber,  iron-shod  spuds  were  located  in  the  stern  of 
the  dredge.  They  served  to  brace  the  dredge  as  the  cutter  moved 
forward  into  the  bed  of  the  stream.  By  raising  and  lowering 
these  spuds  alternately,  the  dredge  could  be  swung  in  an  arc 
and  allow  the  cutting  of  a  channel  40  ft.  to  50  ft.  wide  and  from 
10  ft.  to  15  ft.  deep.  The  spuds  were  operated  by  a  60-h.p., 
220-volt,  wound-rotor  type  motor. 

The  main  suction  pump  was  of  the  single-runner  centrifugal 
type,  operating  at  a  speed  of  460  r.p.m.  It  was  located  about 
amidships  and  connected  by  a  rope  drive  to  two  500-h.p.,  2300- 
volt,  self-contained  wound-rotor  type  motors.  The  two  motors 
were  operated  in  multiple  on  a  single  shaft. 

The  discharge  pipe  was  a  26  in.  diameter,  wooden-stave  pipe 
and  took  care  of  a  discharge  of  21,000  gal.  per  minute. 

Several  smaller  motors  of  the  squirrel-cage  type  were  used  for 
the  operation  of  small  auxiliaries,  such  as  a  lathe,  an  air  pump, 
etc. 

This  dredge  was  in  operation  a  little  over  a  year  and  worked 
very  satisfactorily.  The  power  equipment  furnished  a  continu- 
ous load  of  from  900  to  1250  h.p.  for  24  hr.  a  day  and  7  days 
a  week.  The  dredge  handled  30,000,000  gal.  of  a  heavy  solution 
of  mud  and  water  per  24-hr,  day. 


388     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


275.  Use    of    Hydraulic 
Dredges  on  Upper  Mississippi 
River.1 — Since  191 2,  extensive 
dredging  operations  have  been 
carried  on  to  construct  a  6-ft., 
low-water     channel     in    the 
Mississippi    River    from    St. 
Paul,       Minnesota     to     the 
mouth  of  the  Missouri  River. 
The    width   of    the   channel 
varies  from  300  ft.  at  St.  Paul 
to  1400  ft.  at  the  mouth  of 
the    Missouri    River  and   is 
narrow  in    comparison    with 
the    width   of    the   river   at 
these  points. 

The  accompanying  table 
gives  a  statement  of  the  size, 
capacity,  cost  and  excava- 
tion costs  of  8  suction  dredges 
in  operation  during  the 
working  season  of  1912. 

The  accompanying  table 
shows  a  total  excavation  of 
1, 845,486  cu.  yd.  at  a  cost  of 
$91,514.23  during  an  actual 
working  period  of  8848  hours. 
This  gives  an  average  output 
of  208.58  cu.  yd.  per  pump 
hour  per  dredge  at  a  unit 
operating  cost  of  $0.0495  per 
cubic  yard,  not  including 
plant  up-keep  or  rental. 

276.  Use  of  Suction  Dredge 
on  Lower  Mississippi  River.2 
—During  1912  and  1913,  the 
U.  S.  Government  has  used 
a     large     sea-going    suction 
dredge  of  the  Fruhling  type, 
the  "New   Orleans,"   in    the 

1  Abstracted  from  Engineering  News,  July  24,  1913. 

2Astracted  from  Professional  Memoirs,  Corps  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  Army. 


h 

^H    IO    S    CO 
rH    0   0    0 

ills 

Si 

O   O   O   O 

o  o  o  o 

•sg 

•*    OS   CO   00 
00    ,-1    <N    •* 

00    IO    r}<    <N 
^    0    rH    00 

i! 

°s 

§0   I-H   0 
»O   O   N 
00    CD    O 

T-H  co  on  IN 

»O    O   CO    IN 

Oft 
o 

1>    O5   00    lO 

l-( 

it 

N    O   »O    CO 
<N    IN    CO    10 
O5   i-H    CO    Oi 

Tj<     t^      1-H 

(N    CO    (N    CO 
O   t~   CN    (N 

Si 

-Il§ 

CsT  00"  (N*  "~1 
<N    IO    O   CO 

•*      TH      IN     l> 

||.5 

SO  O  >O 
00    CO   t^ 
rH   CO   i-l   CO 

5111 

i^r 

CN   CO   CO 

0   00    00    00 
IN   CO   CO   CO 

i 

"o  a,       J~£ 

<N   >O  t>   O 

00    00   00   00 

Kg             g 

oill2        -in 

§;  a 

I'M, 

C<l   00   00   00 

00    00   00   00 

^ 

Is  i* 

£        Q 

Illl 

lilt 

^•a     § 

•^3-p 

O«« 

S 

!!SS 

88SS 

11 

CO    i-l    Oi    O3 
0>   0    0   0 

§1-1     rH     i-H 
000 

•s-s 
«,§; 

o  *o  >o  *o 

00   00   00   00 

.2  a 
^g 

a 

1 

S 

s 

iiil 

Illi 

RIVERS,  HARBORS  AND  CANALS 


389 


excavation  of  the  Southwest  Pass  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi 
River. 

The  dredge  is  315  ft.  long,  50  ft.  wide  and  26  ft.  deep.  The 
hull  is  of  steel  and  is  provided  with  a  stern  well  in  which  the 
dredge  arm  operates.  The  dredge  is  of  the  suction-hopper  type, 
and  is  propelled  by  twin  screws  and  controlled  by  twin-rudders. 
The  cutter  can  excavate  to  a  depth  of  50  ft.  below  light-water 
line.  The  hopper  has  a  length  of  93^  ft.  and  a  capacity  of  3000 
cubic  yards. 

The  operating  equipment  consists  of  four  sets  of  triple  expansion 
marine  engines,  having  cylinders  12  in.,  19  in.  and  32  in.  in  diame- 
ter with  a  common  stroke  of  24  inches.  The  total  capacity  of  the 
engines  is  2500  i.h.p.  The  two  forward  sets  of  engines  are  direct 
connected  to  two  26-in.  centrifugal  dredging  pumps,  equipped 
with  runners  of  small  diameter,  chambers  lined  with  manganese 
steel,  and  removable  wearing  pieces  of  the  impellers.  Three 
vertical  duplex  pumps  are  used  for  supplying  water  under  pres- 
sure to  the  head  jets  and  hopper  pipes.  Steam  is  supplied  by 
four  water-tube  boilers,  having  a  heating  area  of  12,664  sq.  ft. 
and  a  grate  area  of  317  square  feet. 

The  excavating  equipment  consists  of  a  suction  head  of  the 
Fruhling  type,  attached  to  the  end  of  the  drag  arm,  which  is 
hinged  and  suspended  from  the  stern  of  the  vessel.  Water  at 
200  Ib.  pressure  can  be  used  as  jets  on  the  cutting  edge  to  loosen 
hard  material  or  as  mixing  water  to  loosen  up  material  adhering 
to  the  inside  of  the  head. 

The  following  table  gives  a  statement  of  the  operations  of  the 
dredge  in  Southwest  Pass,  during  the  fiscal  years,  1912  and  1913. 


Item 

1912 

1913 

Character  of  material  

Sand  and  mud 

Sand,  mud  and  silt 

Average  distance  to  dump  .  . 

2  miles 

3  miles 

Quantity  dredged 

186,515  cu.  yd.1 

1,280,054  cu.  yd. 

Total  number  of  loads  

187 

934 

Number  of  loads  per  working  day 
Average  quantity  per  day  

3.9 

3,885.  7  cu.  yd. 

4.28 
5,871  cu.  yd. 

Average  quantity  per  load  
Average  quantity  per  hour  
Percentage  of  time  pumping  

997.4  cu.  yd. 
399.  7  cu.  yd. 
29.50 

1,371  cu.  yd. 
786.75cu.  yd. 
18.58 

1  Dredge  began  operations,  April  12,  1912. 


390     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


Item 

1912 

1913 

Percentage  of  time  going  to  and 
from  dump 

14  30 

8.23 

Percentage    of    time    lost    from 
other  causes,  including  night.  .  . 
Total  service  hours  
Operating  cost 

56.20 
1,056 
$21,009  06 

77.  191 
8,760 

$82,085.49 

Average  cost  per  working  hour.  .  . 
Number  of  days  when  dredging  .  . 
Average  number  of  working  hours 
per  dav  .  . 

$29.51 

48 

14  hr.  40  min. 

$23.35 
218 

16  hr.  7  min. 

Average  time  to  dredge  one  load  . 
Average  dumping  time  
Average  time  going  to  and  return- 
ing from  dump  

1  hr.  39  min. 
13  min. 

48  min. 

1  hr.  45  min. 
12  min. 

46  min. 

Total  operating  cost 

$23,199  06 

$92,730.22 

Cost  per  cu.  yd.  without  repairs  .  . 
Cost  per  cu.  yd.  with  ordinary 
repairs  

$0.111 
$0  124 

$0.0685 
$0  .  0688 

Total  cost  per  cu.  yd.  with  extra- 
ordinary repairs  

$0  124 

$0.0724 

Fuel,  tons.   . 

1,411  74 

6,753  .  64 

Cost  per  ton 

$4  00 

$3  95 

Fuel,  per  cu.  yd.  dredged 

15  12  Ib. 

10.55  Ib. 

Total  mileage  of  dredge  

1,152 

4,813 

Total  cost  per  yard  -mile  

$0.062 

$0.0241 

During  the  fiscal  year  1914,  up  to  April  1st,  1,060,969  cu.  yd. 
were  removed  at  a  cost  of  $0.0607  per  cubic  yard. 

II.  HARBORS 

277.  General. — The  excavation  of  channels  in  harbors  involves 
the  use  of  some  type  of  floating  dredge;  the  selection  depending 
upon  the  local  conditions  regarding  location  of  work,  tidal  range, 
material,  etc. 

In  well-protected,  land-locked  harbors,  the  non-propelling, 
spud-operated  type  of  dredge  can  be  used  to  advantage.  But  in 
large  exposed  harbors,  the  sea-going  ship  type  of  dredge  must  be 
used. 

The  nature  of  the  material  to  be  removed  from  the  channel  bed 
is  an  important  factor  in  the  selection  of  the  most  efficient  type 
of  dredge.  Silt  and  loose  sand  in  large  quantities  can  be  most 
economically  excavated  by  a  suction  or  hydraulic  dredge  and 
harder  materials  by  a  dipper  dredge,  when  the  latter  can  be  used. 

1  Includes  night  work  when  a  single  crew  worked. 


RIVERS,  HARBORS  AND  CANALS  391 

Rock  must  be  previously  broken  up  by  a  rock  breaker  or  by  a 
drill  boat. 

The  removal  of  large  quantities  of  material  from  the  channels 
of  harbors,  ocean  bars,  etc.,  requires  the  use  of  large  capacity, 
self-propelling,  self-contained  dredges  which  are  built  of  sufficient 
strength  to  withstand  rough  weather  conditions.  However,  as 
a  general  rule,  it  may  be  stated  that  more  economical  results 
are  secured  by  the  use  of  dredges  of  about  500  h.p.  capacity  rather 
than  the  machine  of  very  large  power.  This  is  especially  true 
as  to  ladder  dredges,  while  suction  dredges  of  great  capacity  have 
been  successfully  used. 


FIG.   174. — Dipper  dredge  constructing  harbor  channel. 

278.  Floating-dipper  Dredges. — The  floating-dipper  dredge  is 
especially  adapted  to  the  excavation  of  hard  material,  the  re- 
moval of  old  piers,  cribs,  etc.,  in  protected  or  land-locked  har- 
bors.    The  universal  scope  of  operation  of  this  type  of  dredge; 
its  power  to  excavate  all  classes  of  soil,  pull  stumps,  remove  large 
boulders,  bridges,  piles,  cribs,  etc.,  drive   piling,   etc.,   make  it 
of  especial  value  in  the  construction  of  harbor  structures  such  as 
docks,  piers,  ship-yards,  dry-docks,  etc. 

279.  Use  of  Dipper  Dredge  in  New  York.1 — The  Corps  of  Engi- 
neers of  the  U.  S.  Army  used  the  dipper  dredge  "Sodus, "  during 

1  Abstracted    from    Report    of    Chief    of    Engineers,    U.    S.    Army. 


392      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1912,  in  the  dredging  of  a  channel 
in  Oswego  Harbor,  New  York.  The  dredge  operated  in  from 
7  ft.  to  14  ft.  of  water,  excavated  to  a  maximum  depth  of  15  ft. 
and  removed  42,500  cu.  yd.  of  silt  and  sand  from  April  29, 
1912  to  June  30,  1912. 

The  dredge  had  a  wooden  hull  100  ft.  long,  35  ft.  wide  and  9 
ft.  8  in.  deep,  and  was  operated  by  a  horizontal,  14-in.  X  16- 
in.  engine.  It  was  equipped  with  two  dippers,  one  of  3.22  yd. 
capacity  and  one  of  4J£  yd.  capacity.  The  dredge  was  built  in 
1910-12  and  cost  $36,000.00.  The  average  working  capacity  of 
the  excavator  was  250  cu.  yd.  per  hour.  Figure  174  shows  the 
dredge  in  operation. 

The  operating  record  of  the  dredge  from  April  29,  1912  to  June 
30,  1912  is  as  follows: 

Days  in  operation 42 

Hours  in  operation  per  day 8 

Distance  to  dump,  miles 0 . 75 

Number  of  scows  loaded  per  day 4.5 

Average  scow  load,  cu.  yd 230 

Time  to  load  scow,  hours 1.4 

Maximum  output  per  hour,  cu.  yd 250 

Maximum  output  per  day,  cu.  yd 1610 

Time  lost,  days, 

Repairs,  hull 1.5 

Repairs,  machinery , 11 . 25 

Weather 2.5 

Total  time  lost 15.25 

The  operating  cost  of  the  dredge  is  as  follows : 

Labor $1428.00 

Coal 307.00 

Kerosene 2 . 00 

Lubricating  oil 14 . 00 

Supplies, 

Food 344.00 

Miscellaneous 100 . 00 

Repairs,  hull 57 . 00 

Repairs,  machinery 269 . 00 

Laundries,  ice,  etc 23 . 00 

Total  dredge  cost $2544.00 

Tow-boat  operations 973 . 00 

Barge  and  scow  repairs , .  . . .         55 . 00 

Barge  and  scow,  miscellaneous 82.00 


Total  field  cost $3654.00 

Office,  superintendence,  survey,  etc . 178.00 

Grand  total..  .   $3832.00 


RIVERS,  HARBORS  AND  CANALS  393 

Based  on  an  output  of  42,500  cu.  yd.  of  excavation,  the  unit  costs  would 
be  as  follows: 

Dredge  operation $0.059  per  cu.  yd. 

Transportation  of  spoil 0.026  per  cu.  yd. 

Office,  superintendence,  etc 0.004  per  cu.  yd. 


280.  Use  of  Dipper  Dredges  in  British  Columbia.— The  De- 
partment of  Public  Works  of  Canada  has  used  two  dipper  dredges 
in  the  excavation  of  channels  in  Vancouver  Sound. 

The  "Mudlark"  was  built  in  1888  and  is  constructed  of  wood 
throughout.  The  hull  has  a  length,  including  the  boom,  of  122 
ft.,  a  width  of  30  ft.  and  a  draft  of  5  ft.  6  inches.  The  operating 
equipment  consists  of  a  double-cylinder  engine  for  dredging, 
and  moving  the  forward  spuds,  an  independent  engine  for  the 
operation  of  the  rear  spuds,  and  a  pair  of  steam  cylinders  on  the 
upper  deck  for  swinging  the  boom.  The  excavating  equipment 
consists  of  a  2J^-yd.  dipper  which  can  excavate  to  a  depth  of  40 
feet. 

Following  is  a  statement  of  the  operation  costs  for  the  fiscal 
year  1911-12: 


Operation  cost  of  dredge $20,632.27 

Operation  cost  of  two  tugs 5,247 . 52 

Repair  cost  of  dredge 7,649 . 25 

Repair  cost  of  scows 3,628.64 

Repair  cost  of  tugs 1,801 .09 


Total  cost $38,958 . 77 

Total  excavation 90,675  cu.  yd. 

Cost  of  excavation,  $38,958.77  -5-  90,675  =  $0.429  per  cu.  yd. 

The  "  Ajax"  was  built  in  1908,  and  with  the  exception  of  the 
superstructure,  is  constructed  entirely  of  steel.  The  length  of 
hull,  including  boom,  is  159  ft.,  the  width  is  38  ft.  and  the  draft 
9  feet.  The  operating  equipment  is  of  the  standard  type  and 
steam  operated.  The  dredge  is  provided  with  two  dippers,  one  of 
3  cu.  yd.  and  the  other  of  5  cu.  yd.  capacity,  and  the  efficient  ex- 
cavating depth  varies  from  15  ft.  "to  40  feet. 

The  following  statement  gives  the  operating  costs  for  the 
fiscal  year  191 1-] 2: 


394      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

Cost  of  operation  of  dredge $27,951 .48 

Cost  of  operation  of  tug 6,098 . 18 

Repair  cost  of  dredge 10,993 . 63 

Repair  cost  of  scows 1,574 . 79 

Repair  cost  of  tug 689 . 37 


Total  cost $47,307 . 45 

Total  excavation 154,190  cu.  yd. 

Cost  of  excavation,  $47,307.45  -f-  154,190  =  $0.307  per  cu.  yd. 
The  cost  of  excavation  with  the  two  dipper  dredges  is  very  high  on  account 
of  the  great  amount  of  time  consumed  in  making  heavy  repairs. 

281.  Ladder  Dredges. — Ladder  dredges  for  harbor  work  may 
be  of  two  classes,  depending  on  the  conditions  and  location 
of  the  proposed  service.  In  protected  and  land-locked  harbors, 
the  larger  sizes  of  river  dredge  may  be  used  but  in  exposed  har- 
bors and  open  sea  work,  the  sea-going  type  of  dredge  is  necessary. 
The  latter  class  consists  of  a  self-contained,  self-propelled  vessel 
built  of  steel  and  of  great  strength  to  withstand  the  storms  and 
the  strain  of  the  work.  The  hull  is  divided  into  several  compart- 
ments separated  by  water-tight  bulkheads  for  safety  against 
submersion. 

Sea-going  ladder  dredges  are  made  of  two  types;  the  single  and 
the  hopper  dredge.  The  former  consists  of  a  vessel  carrying  all 
the  necessary  operating  and  excavating  equipment.  The  tower 
is  located  amidship,  and  the  material  is  discharged  into  scows 
through  a  central  chute  terminating  on  either  side  of  the  vessel. 
The  latter  or  hopper  dredge,  is  built  larger  to  contain  hoppers 
into  which  the  material  is  discharged.  The  hopper  bottoms  are 
provided  with  trap  doors  controlled  by  chains  and  so  arranged 
that  they  can  be  operated  freely.  When  the  hoppers  are  filled 
with  the  excravated  material,  dredging  operations  are  suspended 
and  the  vessel  moves  to  deep  water  or  the  dumping  ground,  where 
the  hoppers  are  discharged. 

Sea-going  ladder  dredges  have  a  central  longitudinal  well  in 
which  the  ladder  operates.  The  tower  is  generally  located  amid- 
ship to  secure  stability.  For  deep  water  excavation,  the  ladder 
is  often  placed  in  a  well,  located  in  the  bow  of  the  vessel  both  for 
navigation  and  dredging.  For  excavation  at  varying  depths,  the 
well  is  open  and  located  in  the  stern,  the  operating  machinery 
being  placed  in  the  forward  section  of  the  vessel. 

In  semi-sea-going  ladder  dredges,  more  attention  is  given  to  se- 
curing rigidity  and  stability  of  the  excavating  equipment  than 


RIVERS,  HARBORS  AND  CANALS  395 

in  providing  for  sea-worthy  qualities.  The  hull  is  generally 
open  to  offer  great  latitude  for  the  use  of  the  ladder  at  various 
depths.  The  ladder  well  is  located  either  at  the  stern  or  bow 
of  the  vessel,  the  operating  equipment  being  placed  at  the  other 
end  in  either  case.  Some  dredges  of  this  class  are  not  self-propell- 
ing and  must  be  towed  from  place  to  place,  but  most  vessels  are 
equipped  with  propelling  machinery  consisting  of  a  single  screw. 
Sometimes  a  single  paddle  wheel  located  in  the  ladder  pit  fur- 
nishes the  means  of  propulsion. 

282.  Use  of  Ladder  Dredge  in  British  Columbia.— The  De- 
partment of  Public  Works  of  Canada  has  been  using  a  ladder  dredge 
in  the  widening  of  the  First  Narrows  at  Vancouver. 
.  The  dredge  is  built  of  steel,  has  an  overall  length  of  206  ft., 
a  beam  or  width  of  36  ft.  6  in.,  and  a  maximum  draft  with  ladder 
raised  of  12  feet. 

The  operating  equipment  consists  of  two  compound,  surface- 
condensing  engines  for  either  the  operation  of  the  bucket  line 
or  the  propulsion  of  the  ship.  The  engines  are  so  arranged  that 
either  one  can  be  used  for  either  purpose  and  each  develops  about 
600  i.h.p. 

The  excavating  equipment  consists  of  a  ladder  of  sufficient 
length  to  dredge  to  a  depth  of  50  ft.  and  a  bucket  line  of  48 
buckets.  Each  bucket  has  a  capacity  of  24  cu.  ft.  and  is 
provided  with  manganese-steel  replaceable  lips. 

The  following  table  gives  the  output  and  cost  of  operation  for 
the  fiscal  year  1911-12: 

Cost  of  operation  of  dredge „ $53,445 . 65 

Cost  of  operation  of  four  tugs 9,412 . 16 

Rent  of  three  tugs 27,450.91 

Repairs  to  dredge 8,036 . 67 

Repairs  to  scows 4,136 . 87 

Repairs  to  tugs 937.66 


Total  cost $103,419.92 

Total  excavation 621,310  cu.  yd. 

Cost  of  excavation,  $103,419.92  -i-  621,310  =  $0.166  per  cu.  yd. 

283.  Use  of  Ladder  Dredge  in  Massachusetts1.— In  1910, 
a  large  ladder  dredge  was  used  in  clearing  out  a  channel  at  the 
entrance  of  Boston  Harbor.  Dipper  dredges  had  previously 
proved  unsatisfactory  on  account  of  rough  weather  conditions. 

1  Abstracted  from  Engineering  News,  January  27,  1910. 


396      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

The  work  required  the  removal  of  hard-pan,  clay,  stone  and  gravel 
at  a  maximum  high-tide  depth  of  50  feet. 

The  dredge  "Denver"  was  a  heavily  built  wooden  vessel, 
242  ft.  long,  36  ft.  beam  and  a  depth  of  21)^  feet.  The  vessel  was 
self-propelling  and  operated  by  steam  engines  of  700  horse  power. 

The  excavating  equipment  consisted  of  a  steel  ladder  frame  of 
sufficient  length  to  allow  excavation  to  a  depth  of  51  feet.  The 
buckets  had  a  capacity  of  1J^  cu.  yd.  and  the  chain  was  ordinarily 
driven  at  a  speed  of  14  buckets  per  minute. 

The  dredged  material  was  discharged  through  a  hopper  and 
chute  into  scows  of  1800  cu.  yd.  capacity.  The  dredge  was 
maintained  in  position  by  two  bow  and  two  stern  lines  attached 
to  anchors  set  out  at  suitable  distances  from  the  vessel.  A 
continuous  feed  over  the  bottom  was  secured  by  steam  winches 
acting  on  the  mooring  lines.  A  700  ft.  width  of  channel  was 
thus  secured  at  one  time. 

The  average  daily  output  was  8000  cu.  yd.  and  the  maximum 
was  10,500  cubic  yards.  In  a  run  of  55  min.,  1475  cu.  yd.  were 
removed.  The  loss  of  time  and  cost  of  repairs  during  a  year's 
run  were  about  the  same  as  for  a  dipper  dredge  of  about  the  same 
class. 

284.  Hydraulic  Dredges. — The  so-called  sea-going,  hydraulic 
dredge  is  generally  used  in  harbor  improvement  work.  This 
class  of  dredge  is  built  in  two  types;  the  single  excavating  ma- 
chine, and  the  hopper  dredge.  The  former  is  simply  an  excavating 
machine  requiring  barges  or  scows  for  the  removal  of  the  exca- 
vated material  while  the  latter  is  both  an  excavating  and  transport- 
ing machine.  The  former  type  is  generally  employed  for  rela- 
tively shallow  work  in  protected  harbors  while  the  hopper  dredge 
is  especially  useful  for  deep  water  work  in  locations  subject  to 
rough  weather  conditions.  The  hopper  dredge  is  a  self-contained, 
self-propelling  vessel  for  heavy,  strong  construction  and  provided 
with  a  carrying  capacity  of  from  2000  cu.  yd.  to  3000  cubic  yards. 
The  vessel  transports  the  excavated  material  to  deep  water, 
where  tidal  action  will  not  affect  the  dump. 

The  hopper  of  a  hopper  dredge  consists  of  two  rows  of  bins 
located  amidship  and  usually  separated  by  the  pit  or  well  in 
which  the  suction  ladder  operates.  In  some  cases  the  hoppers 
are  located  fore  and  aft  in  the  hull,  the  operating  machinery  being 
placed  amidship.  The  hoppers  are  generally  made  with  sloping 
sides  and  provided  with  bottom  hinged  doors  for  the  free  dis- 


RIVERS,  HARBORS  AND  CANALS 


397 


charge  of  the  material.  Recently,  a  few  dredges  have  been 
equipped  with  pumps  and  discharge  pipes  for  the  removal  of  the 
material  in  the  hoppers  by  pumping. 

The  ordinary  method  of  channel  excavation  is  as  follows. 
The  suction  pipes  are  lowered  to  the  bottom  when  the  dredge 
is  at  the  site,  and  the  vessel  moves  ahead  slowly  while  the  dredg- 
ing pumps  are  operated.  In  this  manner,  one  or  more  furrows 
are  made,  depending  on 
the  number  of  cutters, 
drags  and  suction  pipes. 
When  the  hoppers  are 
filled,  the  vessel  proceeds 
to  the  deep  water  dump- 
ing ground  where  the 
material  is  discharged. 
The  vessel's  course  in 
dredging  should  be  so 
arranged  that  the  chan- 
nel will  be  closely  fol- 
lowed and  a  full  load 
obtained  in  the  shortest 
run. 

285.  Use  of  Hydraulic 
Dredges  in  British 
Columbia.1— The  De- 
partment of  Public 
Works  of  Canada  has 
used  two  different  types 
of  hydraulic  dredge  for 
channel  improvement  in 
British  Columbia. 

The    "Fruhling"   was 

built  in  1906  and  was  especially  designed  for  dredging  sand  bars 
to  a  maximum  depth  of  45  feet. 

The  dredge  is  of  the  hopper  type,  self-contained  and  self- 
propelling  and  is  of  .steel  throughout.  The  hull  has  a  length  of 
187  ft.,  a  beam  of  34  ft.  6  in.  and  a  draft  of  14  ft.  10  inches.  The 
operating  equipment  consists  of  twin-screw,  surface-condensing 
engines.  The  dredging  pumps  are  equipped  with  open  runners 
54  in.  in  diameter  and  16  in.  suction  pipes.  They  operate  at 

1  Abstracted  from  Engineering  Record,  August  23,  1913. 


FIG.   175. — Scraper  of  the  hydraulic  dredge 
"Fruhling." 


398     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

200  r.p.m.  and  are  arranged  so  as  to  draw  from  the  header,  the 
hoppers  or  the  channel,  and  to  discharge  into  the  hoppers  or 
directly  into  barges.  The  excavating  equipment  consists  of  a 
great  steel  scraper  head  which  is  hinged  to  the  ladder  at  the 
end  of  the  suction  pipe.  See  Fig.  175.  The  hoppers  have  a 
capacity  of  about  800  cubic  yards. 

The  following  statement  gives  the  operating  cost  for  the  fiscal 
year  1911-12,  while  excavating  sand  bars  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Fraser  River. 

Operation  cost  of  dredge $35,055 . 30 

Repair  cost  of  dredge 10,713 . 35 


Total  cost $45,768.65 

Total  excavation 669,100  cu.  yd. 

Cost  of  excavation,  $45,768.65  -^  669,100  «=  $0.068  per  cu.  yd. 

The  other  hydraulic  dredge  used  on  this  work  is  the  agitator 
suction  dredge  "King  Edward."  This  excavator  was  built 
in  1901,  and  is  of  the  stern-wheel  steamboat  type.  The  excava- 
ting equipment  consists  of  a  20-in.  centrifugal  pump  operated  by 
triple-expansion,  direct-connected  engines  at  a  speed  of  170  r.p.m. 
The  dredging  depth  varies  from  6  ft.  to  45  feet. 

The  following  table  gives  the  operating  costs  for  the  fiscal, 
year  1911-12,  while  excavating  channels  near  the  mouths  of  the 
Fraser  River  and  False  Creek,  Vancouver. 

Operation  cost  of  dredge $32,531 . 34 

Tug  rental 2,740 . 00 

Operation  cost  of  tug  (5  months) 2,028 . 54 

Repair  cost  of  dredge 6,320 . 92 

Repair  cost  of  scows  and  pontoons 1,523.93 

Repair  cost  of  tug 408.76 


Total  cost $45,553.49 

Total  excavation 379,520  cu.  yd. 

Cost  of  excavation,  $45,553.49  -*•  379,520  =  $0.121  per  cu.  yd. 

286.  Use  of  Electrically  Operated  Hydraulic  Dredge  in  Min- 
nesota.— During  the  working  season  of  1915,  an  electrically 
operated  hydraulic  dredge  was  used  in  extensive  excavation  and 
filling-in  work  around  Lake  Nakomis,  Minneapolis,  Minnesota. 

The  hull  was  of  timber,  80  ft.  long,  24  ft.  wide  and  7  ft.  deep 
and  drew  40  in.  of  water.  Figure  176  shows  the  dredge  in 
operation. 


RIVERS,  HARBORS  AND  CANALS  399 

The  excavating  equipment  consisted  of  a  centrifugal  pump 
equipped  with  a  54-in.  runner  and  operated  at  speeds  of  250 
r.p.m.  and  300  r.p.m.  by  a  500-h.p.  synchronous  motor  running 
at  720  r.p.m.  Speed  reduction  and  change  were  affected  through 
two  sets  of  cut  helical  gears  running  fully  enclosed,  and  lubri- 
cated with  oil.  A  lever  on  top  of  the  gear  box  connected  with 
a  rigid  clutch,  controls  and  locks  the  gears  in  position  for  the 
required  speed.  The  loss  of  efficiency  in  transmission  through 
the  reduction  gears  is  less  than  2  per  cent.,  and  results  over  a  pe- 
riod of  2  months'  operation  gave  a  power  consumption  of  from 
Y%  k.w.  to  Y±  k.w.  per  cubic  yard  of  excavated  material  discharged 
through  a  pipe  line  varying  in  length  from  500  ft.  to  2000  feet. 


FIG.  176. — Electrically    operated    hydraulic    dredge    on    lake    improvement. 
(Courtesy  of  Norbom  Engineering  Co.) 


The  runner  speed  of  250  r.p.m.  was  used  in  pumping  through  pipe 
lines  of  from  1200  ft.  to  1500  ft.  in  length  and  under  a  head  of 
12  feet.  The  higher  speed  of  300  r.p.m.  was  used  in  pumping 
against  higher  resistances. 

The  cutter  was  operated  by  a  50-h.p.  slip-ring  motor  and  the 
main  hoisting  engine  by  a  30-h.p.  motor  of  the  same  type.  The 
hoist  comprised  five  drums  and  two  winches.  A  water-jet 
exhauster,  operated  from  an  auxiliary  pump,  was  used  for  prim- 
ing the  main  pump. 

The  current  used  was  2300-volt,  alternating,  three-phase 
50-cycle  and  was  used  without  stepping  down  on  the  three  motors. 
The  current  was  reduced  to  a  lower  voltage  for  the  service  motor, 
and  a  motor  generator  set  was  used  for  furnishing  direct  current 
for  lighting.  The  lighting  equipment  consisted  of  a  6000  candle- 
power  searchlight,  several  arc  and  incandescent  lamps. 


400      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

The  output  of  the  dredge  under  average  conditions  was  5000 
cu.  yd.  per  day,  place  measurement.  The  maximum  output  was 
about  7000  cu.  yd.  in  24  hours. 

287.  Subaqueous  Rock  Breaking. — When  solid  rock  forms  the 
bed  of  a  river  or  harbor  channel,  the  material  must  be  broken  up 
into  small  fragments  before.it  can  be  removed.     The  breaking 
up  of  the  rock  may  be  accomplished  in  two  differnt  ways: 

1.  By  hammering,  using  a  Lobnitz  Rock  Cutter. 

2.  By  drilling  and  blasting  with  a  drill  boat. 

The  operation  of  a  rock  cutter  consists  in  the  raising  and  drop- 
ping of  a  heavy  ram,  either  by  gravity  or  by  compressed  air.  The 
ram  drops  upon  the  rock  surface  and  gradually  pulverizes  and 
shatters  the  material.  The  impact  of  the  ram  should  be  re- 
peated on  the  same  spot,  a  slight  deviation  causing  a  consider- 
able reduction  of  efficiency.  The  blows  should  be  directed  at 
spots  about  3  ft.  on  centers,  and  the  rock  shattered  to  a  depth 
of  from  3  ft.  to  5  ft.,  the  thickness  depending  on  the  charac- 
ter of  the  material.  The  broken  rock  is  then  removed  by 
a  dredge,  and  the  process  repeated  until  the  desired  depth  is 
reached. 

The  drill  boat  has  been  developed  to  an  efficient  condition  and 
some  one  of  several  types  is  generally  used  in  this  country  at 
the  present  time.  See  Chapter  XV.  By  using  a  barge  with 
several  drills,  large  quantities  of  rock  may  be  drilled  and  blasted 
in  a  short  time.  The  holes  are  thus  simultaneously  made  in  rows, 
the  holes  in  each  row  being  from  5  ft.  to  8  ft.  apart  and  the  spacing 
of  the  rows  depending  on  the  character  of  the  rock  to  be  handled. 
The  holes  are  charged  with  dynamite  cartridges  and  the  latter 
exploded  by  an  electric  machine  from  the  drill  boat. 

288.  Use  of  Rock  Cutters  and  Drill  Boat  in  England.1— The 
two  methods  of  subaqueous  rock  excavation  were  used  in  1906 
at  Blyth,  England  in  the  breaking  up  of  500,000  cu.yd.  of  sand- 
stone, and  shale.     Two  Lobnitz  rock  cutters,  and  one  drill  boat 
were  employed  on  this  work.     Two  700-ton  clam-shell  dredges 
of  the  hopper  type  were  used  for  the  removal  of  the  fractured 
material. 

Each  rock  cutter  consisted  of  a  steel  barge  carrying  shear-legs 
which  supported  a  steam  ram,  17  in.  to  19  in.  in  diameter,  40  ft. 
to  50  ft.  long  and  weighing  15  tons.  The  ram  was  operated  by  a 
friction-clutch  drum  and  was  allowed  to  fall  through  an  average 

1  Abstracted  from  Engineering,  London,  June  28,  1907. 


RIVERS,  HARBORS  AND  CANALS  401 

height  of  8  feet.  Eight  to  nine  blows  of  the  ram  were  required  to 
break  up  the  rock  to  a  depth  of  3  feet.  The  boat  was  anchored  in 
position  by  chains  attached  to  steam  winches.  The  working 
positions  were  from  3  ft.  to  4  ft.  6  in.  on  centers,  depending  on  the 
character  of  the  rock. 

The  following  statement  gives  the  average  output  and  cost  of 
operation  of  one  cutter  per  working  day  of  about  22  hr.,  based 
on  6  months'  operation. 

Labor ....  $11.18 

Coal,  stores,  and  water 4 . 54 

Repairs 15.30 

Insurance 1 . 35 

Interest  @  (4  per  cent,  of  $33,110) 3 . 64 

Depreciation  @  (2>£  per  cent,  of  $33,110) 2 . 27 


Total  daily  cost $38. 28 

Total  excavation 129 . 71  cu.  yd. 

Cost  of  excavation,  $38.28  -i-  129.71  -  $0.29  per  cu.  yd. 

The  drill  barge  was  equipped  with  6  drills  operated  by  steam 
power.  The  drill  holes  were  spaced  5  ft.  on  centers  in  each  row 
and  6  ft.  2  in.  between  rows.  Bellite  was  used  as  blasting  material 
and  was  placed  in  the  holes  through  drilling  tubes,  and  fired  by 
fuses  and  detonators.  The  average  amount  of  rock  blasted  was 
about  70  cu.  yd.  per  working  day  and  the  average  cost  of  drilling 
and  blasting  was  about  $0.06  per  cubic  yard. 

The  broken  up  rock  was  excavated  by  the  hopper  dredges, 
which  were  equipped  with  two  sets  of  buckets,  one  set  for  rock 
dredging  and  the  other  for  sand,  clay  or  gravel  and  having  50 
per  cent,  greater  capacity.  The  bucket  lips  were  of  cast  steel 
and  the  pins  and  bushings  of  the  bucket  chain  of  manganese 
steel.  The  lips  of  the  buckets  for  rock  dredging  were  set  at  an 
angle  of  about  27  degrees  to  the  backs,  and  those  for  sand,  etc., 
at  an  angle  of  about  55  degrees. 

The  rock  was  elevated  and  deposited  in  the  hoppers,  and  car- 
ried to  sea  and  discharged  in  deep  water,  or  occasionally  dumped 
into  barges  having  grilled  hoppers,  thus  providing  for  the  screen- 
ing and  segregation  of  the  rock. 

The  average  amount  of  blasted  rock  removed  by  one  dredge 
during  a  working  day  of  22  hr.  was  158  cu.  yd.  and  the  average 
cost  was  $0.76  per  cubic  yard.  The  average  output  of  one  dredge 
per  day  for  rock  broken  up  by  the  rock  cutter  was  182  cu.  yd., 


402     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

and  the  average  cost  of  excavation  was  $0.66.  The  quantity 
of  rock  removed  by  the  dredges  was  15  per  cent,  greater  for  the 
material  broken  up  by  the  rock  cutter  than  that  drilled  and  blasted 
on  account  of  the  smaller  size  of  the  fragments. 

The  following  is  a  comparative  cost  statement  of  the  complete 
operation  by  the  two  methods  of  breaking. 

Per  cubic  yard 

Drilling  and  blasting $0 . 72 

Dredging 0 . 76 


Total  cost $1 . 48 

Breaking  by  rock  cutter $0 . 29 

Dredging 0. 66 

Total  cost $0.95 

Saving  in  cost  by  using  rock  cutter $0 . 53 

289.  Use  of  Rock  Cutter  and  Drill  Boat  in  British  Columbia.— 
A  Lobnitz  rock  breaker  and  a  drill  boat  form  part  of  the  dredging 
fleet  operating  in  British  Columbia  waters  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  Department  of  Public  Works  of  Canada. 

The  rock  breaker  consisted  of  a  barge  equipped  with  two 
cutters,  one  weighing  20  tons  and  suitable  for  working  depths  up 
to 40  feet.  Each  cutter  had  a  detachable  projectile  steel  tip  with 
a  hard  center  core.  The  following  is  a  statement  of  the  cost 
of  operation  for  the  fiscal  year  1911-12,  while  working  in  chan- 
nel improvement  in  Victoria  Harbor. 

Operation  cost  of  cutter $7869 . 21 

Tug  rental 373.57 

Repair  cost  of  cutter. ..}... 784 . 21 


Total  cost $9026.99 

Total  amount  of  rock  broken 1000  cu.   yd. 

Cost  of  rock  broken,  $9026.99  -J-  1000  =  $9.026  per  cu.yd. 

The  drill  boat  comprised  a  scow  upon  which  is  mounted  a  5-in. 
drill  which  is  carriage  operated  and  can  be  moved  to  work  through 
wells  spaced  on  18-in.  centers.  The  scow  was  raised  above 
high-water  level  and  supported  on  the  four  corner  spuds  before 
drilling  commenced.  The  maximum  depth  of  drilling  was 
35  ft.  below  the  scow  floor.  The  steam  and  all  auxiliary  equip- 
ment were  placed  on  a  small  scow  floating  alongside  the  drill 
barge.  The  cost  of  operation  during  the  fiscal  year  1911-12 


RIVERS,  HARBORS  AND  CANALS  403 

is  given  in  the  following  statement.     The  work  was  done  in 
channel  improvement  in  Victoria  Harbor. 

Operation  cost  of  drill-boat $9,978. 12 

Repair  cost  of  drill  boat 414 . 26 


Total  cost ...   $10,392 . 38 

Number  of  2^-in.  holes  drilled  992 

Total  depth  of  holes 4442.6  ft. 

Total  amount  of  rock  broken 1690  cu.  yd. 

Cost  of  breaking  up,  $10, 392. 38  •*-  1690  =  $6.13 

290.  Use  of  Drill  in  Shallow  Water  in  British  Columbia. l- 
During  the  Spring  of  1916,  a  drill  was  used  for  the  breaking  up  of 
rock  at  the  dry  dock  of  the  Grand  Trunk  Ry.,  Prince  Rupert, 
British  Columbia.     The  water  was  shallow  but  the  tidal  varia- 
tion was  about  20  ft.  and  precluded  the  use  of  any  of  the  usual 
types  of  drill  barges  or  platforms.     So  a  temporary  platform 
was  built  over  the  site,  there  being  sufficient  mud  overlying  the 
rock  to  hold  the  lower  ends  of  the  piles  in  place. 

The  material  was  a  hard  schist  weighing  about  168  Ib.  per  cubic 
foot.  The  holes  were  3  in.  in  diameter  and  spaced  5  ft.  on  cen- 
ters. The  drill  used  was  an  Ingersoll-Rand,  K64  with  a  6^-in. 
bore  and  a  9-in.  stroke.  The  drilling  was  carried  on  during  54  days 
of  24  hr.  each.  The  average  rate  of  drilling  was  5  ft.  to  6  ft. 
per  hour  while  the  actual  return  was  about  8  ft.  per  hour.  The 
maximum  record  was  120  ft.  in  20  hours.  The  total  length 
of  hole  drilled  was  4269  ft.  with  a  loss  of  299  ft.,  leaving  a  net 
result  of  3970  feet. 

The  blasting  was  done  with  60  per  cent,  dynamite,  made  up  in 
special  sticks  15  in.  long  and  2  in.  in  diameter.  The  broken 
up  rock  could  be  easily  handled  with  an  orange-peel  bucket. 

III.  CANALS 

291.  Preliminary. — This    division    will    discuss    the    various 
types  of  machines  used  in  the  construction  of  artificial  waterways 
such  as  the  Chicago  Drainage  Canal,  the  New  York  State  Barge 
Canal,  the  Welland  Canal,  the  Panama  Canal,  etc. 

Many  sections  of  large  canals  and  artificial  waterways  are  con- 
structed through  dry  material  and  hence  a  much  greater  diversity 
of  excavators  may  be  used  in  this  class  of  work,  than  is  possible 

1  Abstracted  from  Engineering  News,  July  27,  1916. 


404      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

in  the  construction  of  channels  in  lakes,  rivers  and  harbors. 
For  example,  in  the  building  of  the  Chicago  Drainage  Canal, 
about  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago,  almost  every  well-known  type 
of  excavator  was  used,  especially  of  the  dry-land  class,  from  a 
slip  scraper  to  drag-line  excavator.  Several  new  types  of 
machines  such  as  the  tower  excavator  and  two  forms  of  templet 
excavator  were  devised  especially  for  this  work.  Hence  in  the 
following  statement  a  discussion  of  the  use  of  rather  a  wide 
range  of  types  of  excavating  machines  will  be  given,  and  a 
number  of  examples  of  costs  quoted  to  show  the  comparative 
cost  of  excavation  with  the  different  machines. 

292.  Scrapers. — Slip  and  wheeled  scrapers  have  been  used  in 
the  past  on  the  construction  of  large  artificial  waterways,  but 
their  use  has  been  largely  discontinued  in  recent  years  since  the 
introduction  of  the  large  power  machines,  which  are  generally 
more  economical  for  work  of  this  magnitude.     Thus  the  scraper- 
bucket  machine  or  the  tower  excavator  would  under  ordinary 
conditions  be  more  efficient  than  a  scraper  for  a  canal  in  dry 
earth,  which  would  be  of  a  cross-section  required  for  navigation. 

293.  Use  of  Wheeled  Scrapers  on  the  Chicago  Drainage  Canal. 
—The  following  data  give  the  cost  of  excavation  work  on  the 

Chicago  Drainage  Canal,  referring  to  those  sections  where  wheeled 
scrapers  were  used. 

"The  soil  moved  by  wheelers  was  a  'fairly  soft  clayey  loam'  and  the 
average  haul  was  about  400  ft.,  the  material  being  deposited  in  spoil 
banks. 

"On  the  Brighton  Division,  Section  K,  68,300  cu.  yd.  were  moved 
in  62  days,  the  average  force  being  23.8  men  and  36.8  teams  with  drivers. 
There  were  two  plows  and  24  No.  3  wheelers  in  use,  hence  each  plow 
loosened  550  cu.  yd.,  and  each  wheeler  moved  46.1  cu.  yd.  per  10-hr, 
day,  while  the  average  output,  including  snatch  teams  of  which  there 
appear  to  have  been  one  for  every  three  wheelers,  and  including  plow 
teams,  was  about  30  cu.  yd.  per  day  per  team. 

"For  Summit  Division,  Section  E,  the  haul  was  400  feet.  The  number 
of  men  engaged  is  not  given,  but  we  have  assumed  two-thirds  man  per 
team,  which  is  not  far  from  right. 

"The  table  shows  that  there  were  about  five  wheelers  to  each  plow, 
hence  each  plow  must  have  loosened  about  200  cu.  yd.  in  10  hr.  the 
hardest  section  being  from  Sta.  480  to  Sta.  490,  where  168  cu.  yd.  were 
the  average  per  plow  team  per  day.  Doubtless  two  teams  were  worked 
on  each  plow.  One  snatch  team  to  every  4.4  wheelers  appears  to  have 


RIVERS,  HARBORS  AND  CANALS 


405 


been  the  average,  or  each  snatch  team  loaded  about  175  cu.  yd.  a  day  at  a 
cost  of  two  cents  per  cubic  yard."1 

TABLE  XXV. — AMOUNTS  AND  COST  OF  WHEEL  SCRAPER  WORK 


Stations 

Average 

Total 
excava- 
tion, 
cu.  yd. 

Daily  average, 
cu.  yd. 

Ratio  of  teams 

Cost, 
cents 
per 
cu.  yd. 

(1) 

Fill 
ft. 

ut, 

ft. 

Per 
team 

Per 
wheeler 

Wheelers 
to  plows 

Wheelers 
to  team 

460-470 

12 

8.0 

94,879 

29.8 

42.2 

5>i  -1 

4Ko-l 

15.1 

(2) 

470-480 

12 

8.3 

98,515 

27.1 

39.3 

4Ko  1 

4Ko-l 

16.6 

(2) 

480-490 

11 

7.0 

85,761 

24.4 

35.2 

4Me-l 

4Mo-l 

18.4 

(2) 
(3) 

490-500 

7 

3.4 

33,185 

35.0 

50.1 

4Ko~l 

.4Mo-l 

12.9 

500-507 

7 

4.3 

29,678 

28.3 

42.1 

4^o-l 

3Ko-l 

15.9 

(4) 

(1)  Assuming  two-thirds  man  per  team. 

Material:  (2)  Very  stiff  blue  and  yellow  clay  with  a  few  large  boulders. 

(3)  Loamy  clay. 

(4)  Stiff  clay. 

294.  Graders. — The  elevating  grader   like  the  scraper  is  a 
machine  of  rather  small  and  limited  capacity  to  use  on  the  ex- 
cavation of  large  channels.     However,  the  grader  may  be  often 
employed  to  advantage  in    cooperation   with  the  large  power 
excavators.     For  example,  during  the  construction  of  the  New 
York  State  Barge  Canal,  elevating  graders  were  used  to  form  lev- 
ees, behind  which  the  material  from  hydraulic  dredges  could 
be  discharged. 

295.  Use  of  Elevating  Graders  on  Chicago  Drainage  Canal.— 
During  the  latter  part  of  the  year  1894,  while  waiting  for  the  com- 
pletion of  the  bridge  conveyors  which  were  to  be  used  in  the 
excavation  of  sections  K  and  I  of  the  Chicago  Drainage  Canal, 
and  to  keep  up  with  the  contract  requirements  as  regards  monthly 
progress,  the  earth  to  a  depth  of  about  5  ft.  over  the  entire  area 
of  the  two  sections  was  excavated  and  removed  with  elevating 
graders  and  dump  wagons. 

There  were  five  New  Era  graders  and  35  "Austin  Dump  Wagons 
used  on  this  work.  Each  grader  was  operated  by  12  horses  and 
three  men  and  served  by  7  dump  wagons  with  three  horses  and 
a  driver  to  each. 


1  From  "Earthwork  and  Its  Cost, "  by  H.  P.  Gillette. 


406      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

The  soil  excavated  was  a  soft  clayey  loam  and  the  average 
haul  was  about  500  feet. 

The  average  excavation1  for  each  grader  was  500  cu.  yd.  for  a 
10-hr,  working  day.  Records  kept  on  Section  K  during  August 
and  September,  1894,  gave  the  average  output  as  490  cu.  yd. 
and  515  cu.  yd.  per  10-hr,  day,  respectively.  On  Section  I 
the  average  output  for  each  grader  for  September,  1894,  was 
485  cu.  yd.  per  10  hours.  The  total  time  consumed  on  both 
sections  was  123  10-hr,  days,  and  the  average  daily  force  was 
50.4  men,  41.9  teams,  22.3  wagons  and  3.1  New  Era  graders. 
The  average  output  per  day  worked  for  each  quarter  was  508 
cubic  yards.  The  use  of  these  graders  on  the  top-soil  excava- 
tion of  these  two  sections  was  very  satisfactory. 

296.  Power  Shovels. — The  power  shovel  has  been  an  impor- 
tant factor  in  canal  construction  during  the  last  25  years.     The 
special  province  of  this  type  of  excavator  is  in  the  handling  of 
the  harder  materials  such  as  hard-pan  and  rock.     The  larger 
sizes  of  shovels  of  the  first-class  mounted  on  trucks  of  standard 
gage,  and  used  in  conjunction  with  trains  of  dump  cars,  are  the 
most  efficient  for  work  of  this  character  and  scope.     The  reader 
should  make  a  study  of  the  methods  of  handling  material  on  such 
work  as  the  excavation  of  the  Culebra  Cut  of  the  Panama  Canal. 
Shovels  up  to  110-ton  in  size  and  equipped  with  5  yd.  dippers 
have  come  into  general  use.     Recently  the  40-ft.  steel  cars  of 
100,000  Ib.  capacity  have  been  utilized  for  the  removal  of  spoil. 
However,  the  most  efficient  size  of  power  shovel  to  be  used  in 
any  case  must  depend  on  the  local  conditions  of  material,  haul, 
size  of  cross-sections,  etc.     In  many  cases  which  have  come  under 
the  author's  observation,  it  has  been  evident  that  the  greater 
power  and  capacity  of  the  largest  size  shovels  did  not  compensate 
for  the  loss  in  speed  of  operation,  the  increased  number  of  delays 
for  shifts,  and  the  difficulty  of  providing  material  cars  of  suitable 
strength  and  capacity. 

297.  Use  of  Steam  Shovel  in  Ontaria,  Canada.2— The  work 
done  was  the  excavation  of  a  section  of  the  Trent  Canal  near 
Trenton,  Canada.     The  average  cut  was  10^  ft.  and  was  side 
cutting.     The  material  was  gravel  and  was  loaded  into  cars  as 
high  as  the  machine  would  reach.     The  shovel  handled  16,000 
cu.  yd.  from  June  1  to  12,  1908,  the  average  haul  being  1200 

1  "The  Chicago  Main  Drainage  Channel, "  by  C.  S.  Hill. 

2  From  Engineering-Contracting,  October  14,  1908. 


RIVERS,  HARBORS  AND  CANALS  407 

feet.  From  June  15  to  30,  20,000  cu.  yd.  were  excavated  and 
moved  at  an  average  haul  of  1400  feet.  The  total  excavation  was 
36,000  cu.  yd.  with  an  average  haul  of  1300  feet. 

The  outfit  used  consisted  of  a  65-ton  Bucyrus  steam  shovel  with 
a  2^-yd.  dipper,  two  12-ton  Porter  dinkeys,  22  dump  cars  of  4 
cu.  yd.  capacity  and  about  %  mile  of  track.  The  cost  of  this 
outfit  was  approximately  as  follows: 

1  65-ton  shovel $9,000.00 

2  12-ton  dinkey  engines 5,000 . 00 

22  4-ton  dump  cars  @  $230.00 5,060.00 

16  tons  20-lb.  rails  @  $32.00 512.00 

1000  ties  @  10  cents 100.00 


Total $19,672.00 

On  this  investment  of  $19,672.00,  2  per  cent,  was  allowed  for 
interest,  depreciation  and  repairs,  per  month,  making  a  monthly 
charge  of  $393.44. 

The  following  statement  is  based  on  the  fact  that  26  days  were 
worked  during  the  month.  The  shovel  worked  12  hr.  per  day 
and  the  track  gang  and  water  wagon  10  hr.  per  day. 

Loading: 

1  shovel  runner $125.00 

1  cranesman 90 . 00 

1  fireman 60 . 00 

4  pitmen 156.00 

1  team  hauling  water 180 . 00 

50  tons  coal  @  $5.00 250.00 

Oil,  waste,  etc 10.00 

Total $871 .00 

Hauling: 

2  dinkey  runners  @  $3.00  per  day $156.00 

2  brakemen  @  $2 . 00  per  day 104 . 00 

1  oiler  @  $1.75  per  day 45.50 

1  trackman  @  $1 .50  per  day 39.00 

60  tons  coal  @  $5.00 300.00 

Oil,  waste,  etc 16.00 

Total. $660 . 50 

Dumping: 

\  foreman  @  $3.00  per  day $  78.00 

16  laborers  @  $1.50  per  day 624.00 

1  water  boy  @  $1 .00  per  day 26.00 

Total..  .  $728.00 


408     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

Miscellaneous: 

1  superintendent $150 . 00 

1  timekeeper 65 . 00 

1  watchman 40 . 00 

Total $255.00 

Track  Gang: 

1  foreman   @  $3 . 00  per  day $  78 . 00 

5  laborers  @  $1 .50  per  day 195.00 

Interest  depreciation  and  repairs 390 . 00 

Total $663.00 

Grand  total $3177.50 

Total  amount  of  excavated  material 36,000  cu.  yd. 

Cost  of  excavation,  $3177 . 50  -f-  36,000  =  8.7  cents  per  cu.  yd. 

The  cost  of  excavation  may  be  divided  up  as  follows: 

Superintendence $0 . 007 

Loading 0 . 024 

Hauling 0.018 

Dumping 0 . 020 

Track  work 0.008 

Interest,  depreciation  and  repairs 0.010 


Total $0.087 

298.  Use  of  Power  Shovels  on  Panama  Canal. — The  following 
notes  of  steam-shovel  work  have  been  taken  from  the  Canal 
Record  and  several  engineering  periodicals. 

Records  for  April,  1908.  in  four  construction  districts  of  the 
Culebra  Division  are  given  in  table  below. 


Shovel 
number 


Location 


Excavated  mate- 
rial, cu.  yd. 


Kind  of  material 


216 
124 
215 
127 
202 
123 
222 
152 


Empire 
Empire 
Bas  Obispo 
Bas  Obispo 
Pedro  Miguel 
Pedro  Miguel 
Culebra 
Culebra 


2780 
1608 
2904 
2076 
2600 
1469 
2612 
1704 


Rock  and  earth 

Rock 

Earth 

Rock  and  earth 

Earth 

Earth 

Rock  and  earth 

Rock  and  earth 


RIVERS,  HARBORS  AND  CANALS 


409 


Shovels  in  the  "100"  class  are  70-ton  shovels  with  buckets  of 
cu.  yd.  capacity.  Shovels  in  the  "200"  class  are  95-ton 
shovels  with  dippers  of  5  cubic  yards.  The  shovels  operate 
during  an  8-hr.  day. 

On  March  2,  1909,  shovel  No.  220  removed  3941  cu.  yd.  of 
earth  and  rock  in  an  8-hr,  working  day.  The  shovel  was 
actually  operating  during  6  hr.  and  50  min.,  the  remaining 
period  of  1  hr.  and  10  min.  being  spent  in  waiting  for  cars. 

During  June,  1909,  the  following  records  were  made: 

Shovel  No.  204,  working  in  the  Culebra  District  excavated  49,767  cu.  yd. 
of  earth  in  25  working  days  or  an  average  of  1990.7  cu.  yd.  per  day. 

Shovel  No.  132,  working  in  the  Tabernilla  District,  excavated  30,021  cu. 
yd.  of  earth  in  25  working  days  or  an  average  of  1200.8  cu.  yd.  per  day. 

Shovel  No.  223,  working  in  the  Culebra  District,  excavated  3268  cu.  yd. 
of  rock  on  June  24. 

Shovel  No.  132,  working  in  the  Tabernilla  District,  excavated  2060  cu. 
yd.  of  earth  on  June  26. 

During  August,  1909,  the  following  records  were  made: 

Shovel  No.  223,  working  in  the  Culebra  District,  excavated  45,694  cu.  yd. 
of  earth  in  26  working  days,  or  an  avergae  of  1757.5  cu.  yd.  per  day. 

Shovel  No.  204,  working  8  days  in  the  Culebra  District,  excavated 
16,755  cu.  yd.  of  earth  or  an  average  of  2094.4  cu.  yd.  per  day;  working  18 
days  in  the  Empire  District,  excavated  26,518  cu.  yd.  of  earth,  or  an  average 
of  1473.2  cu.  yd.  per  day. 

Shovel  No.  217,  working  in  the  Culebra  District,  excavated  2549  cu.  yd. 
of  earth  and  rock  on  August  31. 

Shovel  No.  108,  working  in  the  Bas  Obispo  District,  excavated  31,299  cu. 
yd.  of  earth  in  26  working  days,  or  an  average  of  1203.8  cu.  yd.  per  day. 

Shovel  No.  127,  working  in  the  Tabernilla  District,  excavated  1750  cu.  yd. 
of  earth  on  August  14. 


During  May,  1909,  the  following  records  were  made: 


Shovel 
number 

District 

Excavation, 
earth,  cu.  yd. 

Excavation, 
rock,  cu.  yd. 

Total  excava- 
tion, cu.  yd. 

Working  days, 
cu.  yd. 

127 

Chagres 

34,894 

34,894 

25 

114 

Chagres 

31,303 

31,303 

24 

211 

Empire 

44,500 

44,500 

25 

210 

Empire 

37,144 

37,144 

25 

224 

Culebra 

41,672 

41,672 

25 

208 

Culebra 

40,539 

40,539 

24 

410      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 
The  following  daily  records  were  made  during  May,   1910: 


Shovel 
number 

District 

Date 

Character  of  exca- 
vated material 

Excavation, 
cu.  yd. 

111 

Chagres 

May    6 

Earth 

1500 

209 

Chagres 

May    3 

Earth 

1490 

111 

Chagres 

May    7 

Earth 

1450 

211 

Empire 

May  12 

Rock 

2432 

211 

Empire 

May  11 

Rock 

2391 

210 

Empire 

May  23 

Rock 

2165 

217 

Culebra 

May    5 

Rock  and  earth 

3477 

217 

Culebra 

May    6 

Rock  and  earth 

3249 

208 

Culebra 

May  23 

Rock 

3059 

231 

Pedro  Miguel 

May  26 

Rock 

2850 

The  monthly  records  were  based  on  place  measurement  and  the 
daily  records  on  car  measurement. 

The  following  table  gives  the  record  of  excavation  made  by 
several  70-ton  shovels  during  8  months  of  1910  on  the  re- 
location of  the  Panama  railroad.  This  record  is  remarkably 
good  considering  that  the  work  was  done  during  a  very  rainy 
season. 


Month,  1910 

Output, 
cu.  yd. 

Average 
number  of 
shovels 

Number  of 
working 
days 

Output  per  shovel 

Per  day, 
cu.  yd. 

Per  month, 
cu.  yd. 

January  
February  
March  

206,334 
214,411 
234,571 
212,097 
212,135 
236,689 
197,069 
250,341 

8.24 
7.91 
7.31 
7.15 
7.88 
8.00 
7.44 
7.04 

25 
23 
26 
26 
25 
26 
25 
27 

1,002 

1,179 
1,234 
1,140 
1,077 
1,138 
1,060 
1,318 

25,040 
27,106 
32,089 
29,648 
26,921 
29,586 
26,488 
35,575 

April  

May 

June  

July.. 

August  

During  January,  1910,  the  following  record  of  excavation  was 
made: 


Shovel  No.  223,  working  in  the  Culebra  District,  excavated  50,  933  cu.  yd. 
of  rock  in  25  working  days,  or  an  average  of  2037.3  cu.  yd.  per  day. 


RIVERS,  HARBORS  AND  CANALS  411 

Shovel  No.  219,  working  in  the  Culebra  District,  excavated  50,270  cu.  yd. 
of  rock  in  25  working  days  or  an  average  of  2010.8  cu.  yd.  per  day. 

Shovel  No.  Ill,  working  in  the  Bas  Obispo  District,  excavated  27,688 
cu.  yd.  of  earth  in  23  working  days,  or  an  average  of  1203.8  cu.  yd.  per  day. 

Shovel  No.  218,  working  in  the-  Empire  District,  excavated  3009  cu.  yd. 
of  rock  on  January  8. 

The  steam  shovel  No.  213,  working  in  the  Culebra  District,  on  March  22, 
1910,  excavated  4823  cu.  yd.  of  earth  and  rock,  place  measurement.  The 
material  was  loaded  on  235  Lidgerwood  cars  and  the  division  of  time  was 
as  follows: 

Time  loading  cars 320  minutes 

Moving  up  20  times  @  5  minutes 100  minutes 

Waiting  for  cars 55  minutes 

Coaling  shovel 5  minutes 


Total  time ....   480  minutes  or 

8  hours 

The  expense  for  labor  and  supplies  is  given  below : 

Labor: 

1  engineer,  1  day  @  $7 . 56 $7 . 56 

1  cranesman,  1  day  @  S6.48 6.48 

1  foreman,  1  day  @  $2 . 83 2 . 83 

2  firemen,  1  day  @  $1 .67 3.34 

1  laborer,  8  hours  @  $0 . 13 1 . 04 

7  laborers,  8  hours  @  SO.  16.  .  .                  8.96 


Total  labor $30.21 

Supplies: 

5%  tons  of  coal  @  $4.41 $23. 15 

3  gal.  of  car  oil  @  $0.18 0.54 

2  gal.  of  valve  oil  @  $0 . 31 0 . 62 

2  Ib.  of  cup  grease  @  $0. 10 0.20 

1  Ib.  of  gear  grease  @  $0 . 08 0 . 08 


Total  supplies $24.59 

Grand  total $54.80 

Total  excavation 4832  cu.  yd. 

Cost  of  excavation,  $54.80   -*•  4832  =  $0.0114  per  cu.  yd. 

299.  Use  of  Power  Shovels  on  Cape  Cod  Canal.1— During  the 
period  1910-14,  three  steam  shovels  were  used  on  a  dry-earth 
section  of  the  Cape  Cod  Canal  in  Massachusetts.  The  equipment 

Abstracted  from  the  Excavating  Engineer,  September,  1913. 


412     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

consisted  of  two  Bucyrus  70-ton  shovels,  one  Marion  model  60,  two 
Baldwin  and  six  Vulcan  locomotives  and  seventy  4-yd.  Western 
dump  cars. 

The  material  handled  was  sand,  glacial  drift  and  boulders, 
which  was  difficult  to  handle  on  account  of  surface  conditions. 

One  of  the  70-ton  shovels  worked  281  days  and  achieved  an 
average  daily  output  of  1456  cu.  yd.  and  a  monthly  record  of 
44,301  cubic  yards.  From  March  1,  1913  to  February  28, 1914,  the 
output  was  909,010  cu  yd.  or  an  average  of  34,084  cu.  yd.  per 
month.  The  average  haul  for  the  excavated  material  was  about 
one-half  mile. 

300.  Scraper-bucket  Excavators. — The  scraper-bucket  or  drag- 
line excavator,  is  one  of  the  most  efficient  of  the  larger  power 
machines  for  canal  excavation  in  the  softer  and  looser  materials, 
where  the  magnitude  of  the  work  will  be  greater  than  50,000  cu. 
yd.  for  one  set-up  of  the  machine.     The  portability  and  adapt- 
ability of  the  machine  make  it  especially  serviceable  for  this 
class  of  work.     The  excavator  may,  in  the  case  of  large  channels, 
work  along  the  berm  and  dispose  of  the  material  directly  in  spoil 
banks  without  the  use  of  a  transportation  system.     Thus  several 
machines  may  operate  coordinately  on  one  job  and  greatly  fa- 
cilitate the  progress  of  the  work. 

301.  Use  of  Drag-line  Excavators  on  New  York  State  Barge 
Canal.1 — Three  drag-line  excavators  were  used  in  earth  excava- 
tion on  Contract  No.  42  of  the  New  York  State  Barge  Canal, 
during  April,   1910.     The  material  excavated  was  principally 
a  heavy  gumbo  soil. 

Two  of  the  excavators  were  electrically  driven  Lidger wood- 
Crawford  drag-line  machines,  equipped  with  100-ft.  booms  and 
23^-yd.  Page  buckets.  The  engines  were  driven  by  a  25-h.p. 
motor  for  swinging  and  a  125-h.p.  motor  for  hoisting.  City 
current  was  used  and  cost  about  1  cent  per  cubic  yard  of  material 
excavated.  These  machines  moved  about  during  the  month  and 
most  of  their  excavation  was  superficial.  Excavator  No.l  worked 
13  days  and  Excavator  No.  2  worked  10  days  during  the  month. 

The  other  machine  was  a  Heyworth-Newman  drag-line  ex- 
cavator operated  by  steam  power  and  equipped  with  a  100-ft 
boom  and  a  2^-cu.  yd.  bucket.  All  excavators  worked  in  three 
shifts  of  8  hr.  each. 

1  Engineering-Contracting,  September  28,  1910. 


RIVERS,  HARBORS  AND  CANALS  413 

Following  is  a  tabulated  statement  of  the  cost  of  labor  and  ex- 
cavation for  these  three  machines. 

HE YWORTH- NEWMAN  EXCAVATOR 

1  operator $4 . 00 

1  fireman '. 2.00 

5  laborers  @  $1.50 7.50 

1  foreman,  average  $85 . 00  per  month 2 . 83 

1  pumpman 1 . 50 

1  oiler 2.00 

1  team  for  1  shift  per  day 4 . 50 

Total  cost  of  labor  per  day $24.33 

Total  cost  of  excavation  per  month $1983 . 84 

Total  cubic  yards  excavated  per  month 23,192 

Cost  of  excavation  per  cubic  yard $0 . 085 

Two  LIDGERWOOD-CRAWFORD  EXCAVATORS 
(Labor  for  Each  Machine) 

1  operator .  $4 . 00 

1  oiler 2.00 

5  laborers  @  $1 . 50 7 . 50 

1  sloper 2.25 

1  foreman  @  $85 .00  per  month 2 . 83 

1  electrician  @  $125.00  per  month 4. 17 


Total  cost  of  labor  per  day  for  each  machine $22 . 75 

Excavator  No.  1 

Total  cost  of  excavation  per  month $1 . 667 . 80 

Total  cubic  yards  excavated  per  month 2271 

Cost  of  excavation  per  cubic  yard $0 . 735 

Excavator  No.  2 

Total  cost  of  excavation  per  month $992 . 30 

Total  cubic  yards  excavated  per  month 2583 

Cost  of  excavation  per  cubic  yard $0 . 384 

302.  Use  of  Drag -line  Excavators  on  Calumet-Sag  Canal.1 — 
Several  drag-line  machines  were  used  from  1912  to  1915  on  the 
construction  of  the  Calumet-Sag  Canal,  which  is  a  drainage 
channel  connecting  the  Little  Calumet  River  (and  Lake  Michigan) 
with  the  Chicago  Main  Drainage  Canal. 

1  Abstracted  from  Engineering  News,  January  23,  1913. 


414     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

A  drag-line  excavator  equipped  with  an  85-ft.  steel  boom  and  a 
2J^-yd.  bucket  was  used  in  the  excavation  of  the  glacial  drift 
forming  the  upper  section  of  the  main  canal  prism.  The  machine 
moved  along  the  berms  and  deposited  the  excavated  material  in 
the  spoil  areas  on  each  side  of  the  channel.  The  loam  was 
stored  separately  and  later  removed  for  use  in  the  Chicago  parks. 
The  length  of  this  section  was  6754  ft.  and  the  amount  of  glacial 
drift  removed  was  221, 000  cubic  yards.  The  cut  averaged  8  ft.  and 
the  output  about  50,000  cu.  yd.  per  month,  working  during  a 
daily  10-hr,  shift.  The  contract  price  for  the  work  was  $0.22 
per  cubic  yard. 

On  Section  No.  3,  a  drag-line  excavator  with  a  100-ft.  boom  and 
a  2J^-yd.  Page  bucket  was  used  to  remove  the  glacial  drift  from 
the  channel.  The  machine  operated  along  one  berm  and  then 
returned  in  the  opposite  direction  along  the  other  berm,  deposit- 
ing the  excavated  material  in  spoil  banks  along  the  right  of  way. 
The  material  comprised  about  335,000  cu.  yd.  in  a  length  of  5397 
feet.  The  lower  5  ft.  to  6  ft.  directly  overlying  the  stratified 
limestone  rock  was  hard,  cemented  gravel  and  rock,  and  required 
blasting.  The  contract  price  for  this  work  was  $0.29  per  cubic 
yard. 

The  work  on  Section  No.  4  comprised  the  removal  of  780,000 
cu.  yd.  of  glacial  drift  over  a  length  of  5377  feet.  A  self-propelling 
steam  drag-line  excavator,  equipped  with  a  100-ft.  steel  boom  and 
3^-yd.  and  6-yd.  buckets  was  used.  The  smaller  size  bucket 
was  used  for  the  excavation  of  the  clay,  and  the  larger  size  bucket 
for  the  removal  of  the  peat  and  light  surface  material.  The  out- 
put of  the  machine  averaged  60,000  cu.  yd.  per  month,  working 
two  10-hr,  shifts  per  day  and  employing  12  men  per  shift. 
The  contract  price  for  the  work  was  $0.25  per  cubic  yard. 

Two  drag-line  excavators,  equipped  with  100-ft.  steel  boom  and 
2Ji-yd.  Page  buckets  were  used  on  Section  No.  5.  The  total 
excavation  amounted  to  1,070,000  cu.  yd.  of  glacial  drift  over  a 
length  of  8127  feet.  The  machines  were  electrically  operated  and 
the  contract  price  for  the  work  was  $0.24  per  cubic  yard. 

303.  Tower  Cableway  Excavators. — The  tower  or  some  type 
of  cableway  excavator  is  especially  adapted  to  the  construction 
of  channels  with  relatively  wide  and  shallow  prisms.  See  Chap- 
ter XI  and  Art.  254,  Chapter  XIX.  The  machine  moves  along 
the  channel  and  digs,  conveys,  elevates  and  dumps  in  one  positive, 
continuous  operation.  The  arrangement  of  the  towers  provides 


RIVERS,  HARBORS  AND  CANALS  415 

for  the  disposal  of  the  excavated  material  at  either  or  both  sides 
of  the  channel.  The  relative  advantages  of  slack  and  taut-line 
machines  depend  on  the  character  and  scope  of  the  work,  and 
must  be  determined  for  each  case.  See  Art.  26,  page  372. 

304.  Use  of  Tower  Excavator  on  New  York  State  Barge 
Canal.1 — The  following  is  a  detailed  estimate  of  the  cost  of  a 
tower  excavator,  which  has  recently  (1910-12)  been  used  on  the 
New  York  State  Barge  Canal. 

5080  ft.  B.  M.  lumber  @  $38.00  per  M $193.04 

360  ft.  B.  M.  white  oak  @  $45.00  per  M 16.20 

540  Ib.  iron  bolts  and  nuts  @  6  cents 32 . 40 

120  ft.  %-in.  wire  rope  backstays 13.20 

2  %-in.  turnbuckles 0 . 80 

1  headblock  sheave  and  bearing 10 . 00 

1  hauling  sheave  and  bearing 4 . 00 

1  8^  X  10-in.  Lidgerwood  double-drum  hoisting  engine 1089.00 

1  scraper  bucket  complete  with  cutting  edge,  sheaves,  etc 300.00 

Labor  erection  (carpenters  @  $2 . 50  for  8-hr,  day) 200 . 00 


Total $1858.64 

At  a  cost  of  operation  for  a  two-shift  day  of  $60.00  and  with  an 
average  daily  excavation  of  2000  cu.  yd.,  the  cost  of  operation 
per  cubic  yard  would  be  3  cents. 

During  April,  1910,  a  tower  excavator2  was  used  on  Contract 
No.  42  of  the  New  York  State  Barge  Canal.  The  material  ex- 
cavated consisted  mostly  of  a  heavy  gumbo  soil.  The  tower  was 
85  ft.  high  and  the  bucket  used  had  a  capacity  of  1%  cubic  yards. 
The  excavator  was  operated  by  a  10-in.  X  12-in.  hoisting  engine, 
which  was  furnished  steam  from  a  40-h.p.  boiler.  Following 
is  a  tabulated  statement  of  the  cost  of  labor  and  excavation. 

1  operator,  per  day $4 . 00 

1  fireman  @  $75 . 00  per  month,  per  day 2  50 

1  foreman  @  $200.00  per  month,  per  day 6.67 

1  pumpman,  per  day 1 . 50 

6  laborers  @  $1 . 50  per  day 9 . 00 


Total  cost  of  labor  per  day. . .  .• $23 . 67 

Total  cost $1,455.81 

Total  cubic  yards  excavated 15,065 

Cost  per  cubic  yard $0 . 096 


1  Engineering-Contracting,  October  26,  1910. 

2  Engineering-Contracting,  September  28,  1910. 


416      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

Although  this  type  of  excavator  has  been  rarely  used  and  is 
little  known  and  understood  by  contractors,  its  use  in  the  past 
has  clearly  demonstrated  its  efficiency  and  economy  of  operation, 
especially  in  the  excavation  of  large  ditches. 

During  the  early  part  of  the  year  1910,  a  tower  excavator  was 
at  work  on  a  section  of  the  New  York  State  Barge  Canal.  The 
following  statement  of  the  cost  of  operation  has  been  furnished 
by  the  contractors. 

Labor: 

1  fireman  @  37K  cents  per  hour $3. 00 

1  engineer  @  37%  cents  per  hour 3 . 00 

1  fireman  @  22  cents  per  hour 1 . 76 

1  signalman  @  25  cents  per  hour 2 . 00 

9  laborers  @  20  cents  per  hour 14.40 


Total  cost  of  labor  per  shift $24. 16 

Total  cost  of  labor  per  month  (52  shifts) $1256. 32 

Material: 

Wire  cable $160.00 

Fuel,  20  tons  of  coal  @  $4.00 80.00 

Oil,  waste  and  repairs 15 . 00 


Total  cost  per  month $255 . 00 

Interest  on  investment  ^  per  cent,  per  month 9 . 30 


Total  cost  of  operation   (not  including  office 

expenses) $1520. 62 

Total  excavation  @  700  cu.  yd.  per  day 18,200 

Cost   of   excavation  per  cubic  yard,  $1520.62  -f-  18,200  =  $0.084 

305.  Use  of  Double-tower  Excavator  on  Chicago  Main  Drain- 
age Canal. — A  double-tower  drag-line  excavator  was  used  with 
very  satisfactory  results  in  the  excavation  of  two  sections  of  the 
Chicago  Drainage  Canal.  The  canal  prism,  which  this  excavator 
made  was  unusually  true  to  the  theoretical  cross-section,  there 
being  less  than  1^  cu.  yd.  of  excavation  per  lineal  foot  outside 
of  the  required  lines. 

The  canal  excavated  had  a  bottom  width  of  26  ft.  and  side 
slopes  of  2  to  1.  The  average  depth  was  27 J^  feet.  The  canal 
lay  in  nearly  a  level  plain  and  the  material  excavated  was  clay. 

This  excavator  was  designed  by  the  late  J.  T.  Fanning  of  Chic- 
ago, and  consisted  principally  of  two  towers  and  two  buckets. 


RIVERS,  HARBORS  AND  CANALS  417 

Figure  83  is  a  diagram  illustrating  the  principles  of  construction 
and  operation.  It  will  be  seen  by  the  plan  that  the  two  inclined 
booms  are  so  constructed  that  a  straight  line  from  the  apex  of 
either  tower  to  the  point  of  the  opposite  boom,  clears  the  side  of 
the  tower.  This  allows  the  bucket  to  clear  the  tower  and  empty 
directly  on  the  adjacent  spoil  bank.  As  will  be  seen  from  Fig. 
177,  there  are  two  buckets,  working  in  opposite  directions  and 
each  excavating  its  half  of  the  canal  prism. 

A  double-drum  hoisting  engine  was  placed  on  the  side  of  the 
platform  of  each  tower.  Each  bucket  was  operated  by  a  drag 
or  digging  line  and  a  load  line.  The  drag  line  was  run  from  the 
smaller  drum  of  the  engine  to  the  bucket,  which  dug  in  a  down- 


Fio.  177. — Double  tower  excavator.     (Courtesy  of  Engineering  &  Contracting.) 

ward  direction  on  the  side  of  the  canal  opposite  to  its  tower. 
The  load  line,  which  is  slack  during  the  filling  of  the  bucket,  ex- 
tends from  the  larger  drum  of  the  engine,  upward  through  the 
tower,  over  a  sheave  near  the  apex  of  the  tower,  then  out  to  a 
stationary  sheave,  which  is  suspended  between  the  two  towers, 
then  down  to  a  sheave  attached  to  the  bail  of  the  bucket  and 
then  out  to  the  end  of  the  boom  on  the  opposite  tower.  As 
soon  as  the  bucket  is  filled  the  load  line  is  wound  up  with  the  drag 
line  kept  taut.  This  raises  the  bucket  up  above  the  surface  of 
the  ground  and  to  an  elevation  slightly  higher  than  the  point  of 
the  boom.  Then  the  drag  line  is  released  and  the  bucket  allowed 
to  run  down  the  load  line  by  gravity  to  the  dump  pile  or  spoil 
bank  near  the  end  of  the  boom.  By  changing  the  location  of  the 

27 


418      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

suspended  sheaves,  the  position  of  the  bucket  in  digging  can  be 
altered  so  as  to  reach  the  entire  half  width  of  the  canal  prism. 

The  buckets  used  had  a  capacity  of  %  cu.  yd.  and  a  tripping 
device  near  the  end  of  each  boom,  caused  the  bottom  of  each 
bucket  to  swing  loose  and  drop  the  load  on  the  spoil  bank. 

The  excavator  was  used  for  a  period  of  2  years  on  daily 
shifts  of  10  hours.  The  labor  employed  consisted  of  an  engineer, 
a  fireman  and  a  track  gang  of  five  men.  An  average  gang  of  12 
men,  including  a  superintendent,  a  watchman  and  the  operating 
laborers,  were  used.  The  average  daily  excavation  was  500 
cu.  yd.  to  600  cubic  yards.  The  maximum  monthly  excavation 
was  19,000  cu.  yd.  in  June,  1910,  while  the  minimum  monthly  ex- 
cavation was  4750  cu.  yd.  in  December,  1908.  A  record  of  two 
trips  per  minute  for  each  bucket  was  made  but  the  average  speed 
of  excavation  was  one  trip  per  minute. 

306.  Floating-dipper  Dredges. — The  floating-dipper  dredge  is 
probably  the  best  known  and  most  widely  used  type  of  excavator 
on  canal  construction.     Its  universal  adaptability  to  a  wide  range 
of  operating  conditions  and  its  great,  concentrated  power  make 
it  very  efficient  in  the  excavation  of  material  of  all  kinds  and  the 
handling  of  obstructions,  both  natural  and  artificial. 

Recently,  dredges  of  large  capacity  have  been  built  and  oper- 
ated successfully.  The  most  notable  example  of  large  dredge 
operation  is  the  use  of  the  two  15-yd.  dipper  dredges  on  the  Pan- 
ama Canal,  as  described  in  a  subsequent  article. 

The  special  field  of  work  of  the  dipper  dredge  is  in  the  excava- 
tion of  hard  material  up  to  a  depth  of  50  feet.  The  use  of  steel 
wire  rope  and  the  proper  proportioning  of  the  parts  to  ensure  an 
efficient  angle  of  lead  and  operating  speed,  are  factors  tending 
toward  the  satisfactory  use  of  dredges  of  great  power  and  capacity 
in  large  canal  excavation  and  maintenance. 

307.  Use  of  Dipper  Dredges  on  Panama  Canals — From  1913  to 
date  (1918),  two  15-yd.  dipper  dredges,  the  Gamboa  and  the  Par- 
aiso,  have  been  used  in  the  removal  of  the  slides  in  the  Culebra 
cut  and  for  general  maintenance  work. 

The  dredges  are  equipped  with  10-yd.  rock  dippers  and  are 
designed  to  dig  to  a  depth  of  50  ft.  below  the  surface  of  the  water. 
These  dredges  are  equipped  with  main  hoisting  engines  consisting 
of  horizontal,  twin-tandem,  compound-condensing  engines,  com- 
pound geared  to  heavy  spur  gears  mounted  on  the  main  hoisting 
shaft  which  carries  the  drums. 


RIVERS,  HARBORS  AND  CANALS 


419 


The  dredges  commenced  work  early  in  the  Spring  of  1914  and 
had  difficult  and  heavy  digging  to  contend  with.  The  material 
was  largely  a  hard  trap  rock  and  many  boulders  weighing  from 
10  to  30  tons  apiece  were  encountered.  The  early  output  per 
day  of  16  hr.  was  from  3000  to  5000  cu.  yd.  and  was  later 
increased  to  an  average  of  from  9000  to  10,000  cubic  yards.  The 
Paraiso  made  the  following  record  for  June  to  November,  1914. 
June,  72,700  cu.  yd.;  July,  84,700  cu.  yd.;  August,  96,400  cu. 
yd.;  September,  109,800  cu.  yd.;  October,  125,000  cu.  yd.;  and 
and  November,  140,000  cubic  yards. 

The  following  statement  gives  the  cost  of  dipper  dredging  on 
the  Panama  Canal  for  the  years  1915  and  1916. l 

TABLE  XXVI. — COSTS  OF  DIPPER  DREDGE  OPERATIONS  ON  PANAMA  CANAL 

—1915  AND  1916 


Dredge 

Output,  cu.  yd. 

Cost 

Unit  cost 
per  cu.  yd. 

Earth 

Rock 

Total 

1915 


Gamboa 

1  825  122 

1  825  122 

$628,901  11 

$0  3446 

Paraiso  .  .  . 

1,739,228 

1,739,228 

611,444  02 

0.3516 

Cardenas  
Chagres  . 

2,869 

462,505 
353  619 

465,374 
353,619 

210,660.61 
166,485  61 

0.4527 
0.4708 

Mindi 

1  416 

400294 

401  710 

180  585  96 

0  4495 

1916 


Gamboa 

3,097  226 

3  097  226 

$762,904  83 

$0  .  2463 

Paraiso  

... 

3,004,104 

3,004,104 

750,103.25 

0.2497 

Cardenas 



171  203 

171,203 

59,763  10 

0.3491 

Chagres  

234,131 

234,131 

76,459.46 

0.3266 

Mindi  

228,442 

228,442 

90,329.81 

0.3954 



The  Cardenas,  Chagres  and  Mindi  are  5-yd.  dipper  dredges. 

308.  Use  of  Dipper  Dredges  on  New  York  State  Barge  Canal.— 
From  1906  to  1911  inclusive,  two  dipper  dredges  were  used  in  the 
excavation  of  the  Hudson  River  between  Waterford  and  Fort 
Edward,  New  York  to  form  a  section  of  the  New  York  State 


1  Abstracted  from  Annual  Reports  of  Governor  of  the  Panama  Canal, 
1915  and  1916. 


420      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

Barge  Canal  for  a  distance  of  about  7  miles.  The  original 
estimated  excavation  was  913,500  cu.  yd.  and  the  contract  price 
was  57%  cents  per  cubic  yard,  without  classification. 

The  excavators  were  two  floating-dipper  dredges,  97  ft.  long, 
18  ft.  wide  and  6  ft.  draft.  Pontoons  were  provided  for  the  sides 
of  the  hulls  to  give  stability  during  operation.  The  dippers  had 
a  capacity  of  3^  cubic  yards. 

The  material  was  generally  of  a  silt  and  clay  character  but  three 
rock  reefs  were  encountered.  The  rock  was  broken  up  by  a  Lob- 
nit  z  rock  breaker.  The  excavated  material  was  loaded  in  dump 
scows  and  hauled  by  tugs  to  the  dumping  grounds,  where  it  was 
deposited. 

The  total  excavation  for  the  two  dredges  for  the  year  ending 
September  30,  1906  was  47,261  cubic  yards.  During  the  fiscal 
year  ending  September  30,  1907,  384,810  cu.  yd.  was  removed, 
25,480  cu.  yd.  of  which  was  rock.  During  this  year  the  working 
day  was  of  24  hr.  duration  except  during  the  winter  months  of 
December,  January,  February  and  March.  During  the  year  end- 
ing September  30, 1908,  the  two  dredges  removed  215,225  cu.  yd. 
of  material;  working  24  hr.  per  day  except  during  the  four  winter 
months.  During  the  next  fiscal  year,  ending  September  30,  1909, 
the  output  was  25,924  cu.  yd.,  10,000  cu.  yd.  of  which  was  rock. 
The  dredge  "  Pontiac  "  worked  only  during  the  months  of  Septem- 
ber and  October,  1908.  During  the  next  two  years  the  other 
dredge,  the  "Peconic,"  excavated  15,986  cu.  yd.  of  Hudson  River 
shale,  working  generally  on  the  basis  of  an  8-hr.  day. 

The  output  for  1907  averaged  about  1,000  cu.  yd.  per  24-hr, 
working  day  per  dredge,  representing  an  income  of  about  $560.00 
per  day. 

309.  Ladder  Dredges. — The  ladder  dredge  has  been  univer- 
sally used  on  large  canal  construction,  especially  on  the  Suez 
Canal  and  the  Panama  Canal  with  the  French  regime*.  In  this 
country,  this  type  of  dredge  has  not  come  into  general  use  on  ac- 
count of  the  large  initial  cost  of  the  plant.  The  American  contrac- 
tor has  been  prejudiced  against  the  use  of  the  ladder  dredge  on 
account  of  its  heavy  initial  expense  and  maintenance,  large  crew 
and  limited  field  of  work.  However,  in  canals  with  plenty  of 
room  for  manipulation  and  where  the  soil  conditions.are  favorable, 
the  ladder  dredge  has,  in  recent  years,  proved  to  be  more  efficient 
than  any  other  type.  In  coarse  sand,  gravel  and  stiff  clay  free 
from  large  boulders,  this  machine  has  achieved  remarkable  results. 


RIVERS,  HARBORS  AND  CANALS  421 

The  disposition  of  the  excavated  material  on  canal  work  may 
be  by  conveyors,  by  discharge  through  a  hopper  into  barges  or 
into  hoppers  and  later  carried  to  the  dumping  ground.  Diffi- 
culties are  often  encountered  in  the  use  of  conveyors  on  account 
of  the  clogging  of  the  conveyor,  and  the  proper  disposition 
of  the  fluid  material  in  suitable  spoil  banks.  Hence  one 
of  the  latter  methods  of  handling  the  material  should  be  used. 

310.  Use  of  Steel  Pontoon  Ladder  Dredge  on  New  York 
State  Barge  Canal.1 — During  the  four  months  from  August  1, 
1909  to  December  1,  1909,  a  ladder  dredge  of  standard  design 


FIG.  178.— Ladder  dredge  on  New  York  State  barge  canal.     (Courtesy  of  The 

Bucyrus  Co.) 

was  operated  on  a  section  of  the  New  York  State  Barge  Canal,  near 
Adams  Basin.  Figure  178  shows  the  front  view  of  this  dredge. 

The  hull  was  made  up  of  two  steel  pontoons,  which  were  braced 
together  by  a  rigid  steel  framework.  The  buckets  were  each  of 
5  cu.  ft.  capacity.  The  excavated  meterial  was  discharged  into 
a  hopper  at  the  top  of  the  ladder  and  then  on  to  a  belt,  which  in 
turn  discharged  into  a  second  hopper  and  on  to  a  second  belt. 
These  belt  conveyors  were  carried  by  pontoons  or  scows,  placed 
at  the  rear  of  the  dredge.  A  third  belt  conveyor  carried  the 
material  40  ft.  to  50  ft.  on  to  the  bank  of  the  channel.  The 
third  pontoon  was  pivoted  to  the  stern  of  the  second  pontoon. 
The  belt  conveyors  were  each  operated  by  a  small  electric  motor. 

The   total   cost  of  the  entire  dredge  plant  was  $70,000.00. 

1  Abstracted  from  Engineering-Contracting,  September  7,  1910. 


422     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

Considerable  difficulty  was  experienced  in  keeping  the  soft  ex- 
cavated material  in  place  on  the  spoil  banks.  At  first  heavy 
wooden  fences  were  built  to  hold  the  embankment  to  full  height. 
But  these  proved  to  be  very  expensive  and  inefficient  and  were 
replaced  by  dikes  of  earth  and  sod  having  a  height  of  4  ft.  and 
placed  along  the  outside  edge  of  the  embankment. 

Following  is  given  the  cost  of  the  work  for  the  months  of 
August,  September  and  October,  1909: 

August,  1909 

Coal  and  oil $1,984.50 

15  tons  coal  for  hoisting  engine  @  $2 . 85 42 . 75 

Miscellaneous  supplies  for  hoisting  engine 5 . 25 

Miscellaneous  supplies  for  hoisting  engine  and  derrick 6 . 48 

Hauling  supplies 54 . 00 

Crew  of  dredge 2,296 . 68 

Total  cost $4,389 . 66 

Total  excavation 18,638  cu.  yd. 

Cost  of  excavation,  $4,389.66  •*  18,638  =  23.6  cents  per  cu.  yd. 
Cost  of  moving  6,244  cu.  yd.  of  earth  by  use  of  scrapers 

(supplementing  work  of  dredge) $1,280 . 50 

Cost  of  scraper  work 20 . 5  cents  per  cu.  yd. 

Cost  of  wooden  forms  and  compacting  and  spreading 

10,015  cu.  yd.  of  excavated  material $1,193.25 

Cost  of  forms,  spreading,  etc 11.9  cents  per  cu.  yd. 

September,  1909 

Interest,  depreciation  and  repairs $2,205 . 00 

180  tons  of  coal  (2  tons  per  shift) '. 513 . 00 

150  gal.  gasoline  @  12  cents 48.00 

Oil  (80  gal.  ©  19  cents,  60  gal.  @  35  cents). 36.20 

1200  Ib.  grease  @  8  cents 96.00 

200  Ib.  waste  @  8  cents 16.00 

Teams 245.00 

Labor 2,827.00 

Total  cost $5,986  . 20 

Total  excavation 32,000  cu.  yd. 

Cost  of  excavation,  $5,986.20  -*•  32,000  =18.6  cents  per  cu.  yd. 

Total  working  time  was  90  eight-hour  shifts. 
The  cost  of  embankment  was  as  follows : 

Labor,  spreading  and  compacting $3,151 .50 

Hauling  lumber  for  forms 177  .  16 

Cost  of  lumber  for  forms 1,125  .  00 

General 290  .  00 

Labor  on  forms 828  .  32 

Hauling  supplies •          55.  00 

Total  cost $5,626 .  98 

Total  amount  of  excavated  material  worked 11,000  cu.  yd. 

Cost  of  embankment,  $5,626.98  -5-  11,000  =  51 . 1  cents  per  cu.  yd. 


RIVERS,  HARBORS  AND  CANALS  423 

October,  1909 

Interest  and  depreciation $2,351 . 66 

186  tons  coal  @  $2 . 85 530 . 10 

Labor 3,145.58 

Teams 5 . 00 

Oil,  Grease  and  waste 153 .09 

Gasoline 18.60 

Repairs 18 . 90 


Total  cost $6,222 .93 

Total  excavation 25,500  cu.  yd. 

Cost  of  excavation,  $6,222.93  -r-  25,500  =  24.4  cents  per  cu.  yd. 

Total  working,  time  was  93  eight-hour  shifts. 

The  cost  of  embankment  was  as  follows: 

Labor,  spreading  and  compacting $2,898 .25 

Forms 567 .50 

Erection 108 .50 

Hauling 95.00 


Total  cost $3,669 . 25 

Total  amount  of  excavated  material  worked 21,800  cu.  yd. 

Cost  of  embankment,  $3,669.25  -*-  21,800  =  16 . 9  cents  per  cu.  yd. 

311.  Use  of  Ladder  Dredge  on  Panama  Canal.1 — One  of  the 

largest  and  most  efficient  ladder  dredges  in  existence  is.  the  Cor- 
ozal  which  has  been  in  operation  on  the  Panama  Canal  since  1911. 
This  dredge  was  built  primarily  to  excavate  a  submerged  pla- 
teau composed  of  hard  and  soft  rock,  stiff  boulder  clay  and  con- 
glomerates of  all  kinds.  The  surface  of  the  material  varied  from 
18  ft.  to  40  ft.  below  mean  tide  datum  and  about  4,000,000  cu. 
yd.  have  been  handled. 

The  dredge  is  a  self-contained,  self-propelling,  twin-screw 
hopper  vessel,  which  has  a  dredging  capacity  at  a  50-ft.  depth 
of  about  1300  cu.  yd.  of  soft  material  per  hour  and  about  500 
cu.  yd.  of  boulder  clay  per  hour. 

The  operating  equipment  consists  of  two  steel  cylindrical  multi- 
tubular  boilers,  supplying  steam  at  180  Ib.  and  equipped  with 
Morrison  corrugated  furnaces,  and  two  sets  of  triple-expansion 
engines,  equipped  with  independent  surface  condensers,  circulat- 
ing air  and  feed  pumps,  and  auxiliary  engines  for  winches,  dy- 
namos, pumps,  etc.  Each  main  engine  is  of  about  700  i.h.p., 
has  a  piston  speed  of  600  ft.  per  minute,  and  is  provided  with 
friction  and  toothed  gearing  for  working  at  three  speeds  when 
dredging,  and  arranged  to  throw  out  of  gear  when  propelling 

1  Abstracted  from  Engineering' News,  January  25,  1912. 


424      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


the  vessel.  The  dredge  is  provided  with  a  complete  electrical 
equipment  for  furnishing  light,  an  ice  machine,  and  all  the  nec- 
essary outfit  of  water  and  oil  tanks,  boats,  ropes,  lifebuoys,  etc. 

The  excavation  equipment  consists  of  a  steel  ladder  with 
buckets  of  54  cu.  ft.  capacity  for  soft  material  and  34  cu.  ft. 
capacity  for  hard  material.  The  ladder  is  supported  at  its  upper 
end  on  a  tower  amidship  and  passes  through  a  well  in  the  bow  of 
the  vessel.  The  dredging  speed  is  about  18  buckets  per  minute 
in  soft  material  and  14  per  minute  in  hard  material.  The  buckets 
are  made  of  pressed  steel  plates,  cast-steel  backs  and  manganese 
steel  forged  lips.  The  hopper  capacity  is  27,500  cu.  yd.  including 
coamings.  The  speed  of  the  vessel  with  a  full  hopper  load  is 
about  10  miles  per  hour. 

The  following  is  a  statement  of  the  output  and  cost  of  operation 
of  the  Corozal  for  the  years  1915  and  1916. 


Date 

Output,  cu.  yd. 

Cost 

Unit  cost  per 

Earth 

Rock 

Total 

cu.  yd. 

1915.. 
1916 

224,833 

821,191 
1  459  312 

1,046,024 
1  459,312 

$459,204.61 
494,134  53 

$0.4390 

0  3386 

312.  Hydraulic  Dredges. — The  hydraulic  dredge  has  developed 
greatly  during  the  last  25  years  in  efficiency  and  scope  of  field 
of    usefulness.     The    increase    in   efficiency  has   come  largely 
through  the  use  of  more  efficient  pumps  and  engines.     The  use 
of  special  forms  of  cutters  and  greater  power  has  made  it  prac- 
ticable for  the  hydraulic  dredge  to  satisfactorily  excavate  hard 
materials.     For  many  years,  the  cutter  served  merely  as  an  agita- 
tor to  stir  up  and  mix  the  loose  material  with  water  but  recently 
it  has  become  an  excavator  and  works  very  efficiently  in  dense 
clay  and  hard  gravel. 

The  hydraulic  dredge  although  wasteful  of  power  and  relatively 
inefficient  as  compared  with  some  types  of  dredges,  is  the  most 
economical  type  of  excavator  to  use  in  canal  work  where  there  are 
large  quantities  of  sand,  gravel,  silt  and  clay.  This  machine 
cannot  operate  successfully  in  hard  pan,  rock  or  in  material 
where  large  quantities  of  boulders  abound. 

313.  Use  of  Hydraulic  Dredges  on  New  York  State  Barge 
Canal. — During  1907  and  1908  two  hydraulic  dredges  were  in 


RIVERS,  HARBORS  AND  CANALS  425 

operation  near  Oneida  Lake,  New  York,  in  the  construction  of  a 
section  of  the  New  York  State  Barge  Canal.  These  dredges 
were  the  "  Oneida  "  and  the  "  Geyser  "and  each  will  be  described 
separately  as  each  contained  many  individual  and  peculiar  de- 
tails, although  they  were  both  very  similar  in  general  design. 

The  " Geyser"  was  provided  with  a  hull  having  a  length  of  96 
ft.,  width  of  29  ft.,  and  drew  9  ft.  of  water.  The  dredge  was  so 
constructed  as  to  excavate  material  to  a  depth  of  19  ft.  below  the 
water  surface  and  discharge  the  excavated  material  through 
the  pontoon  pipes,  at  a  distance  of  1500  ft.  and  to  a  shore  eleva- 
tion of  25  ft.  above  water. 

At  the  bow  of  the  boat  a  steel  frame  of  trapezoidal  shape  sup- 
ported the  suction  pipe  and  cutter  head,  the  driving  shaft  and 
gearing.  The  steel  girder  was  33  ft.  long  and  was  pivoted  at  the 
inner  end  on  one  side  of  the  elbow  of  the  suction  pipe  and  on  the 
other  side  by  a  hollow  pivot  through  which  the  cutter-shaft  is 
driven  by  a  counter  shaft  geared  to  a  65  h.p.  engine  with  double 
10-in.  X  12-in.  cylinders. 

The  pump  used  was  a  20-in.  centrifugal,  direct-connected  to  a 
triple  expansion  engine  of  450  nominal  horse  power,  which  devel- 
oped on  occasions  550  h.p.  on  overload.  The  pump  and  engine 
were  placed  near  the  center  of  the  hull.  The  steel  discharge  pipe 
was  20  in.  in  diameter  and  passed  back  on  the  port  side  to  the 
stern  of  the  boat,  where  a  valve  was  placed  to  prevent  backing 
up  of  the  material.  The  pipe  was  in  32-ft.  sections  and  was  sup- 
ported on  pontoons,  which  were  heavy  water-tight  casks.  Heavy 
rubber  sleeves  were  used  to  connect  the  ends  of  the  sections  of 
pipe. 

The  boiler  plant  consisted  of  two  B.  &  W.  water-tube  boilers, 
having  a  rated  horse  power  of  230,  and  used  at  about  160-lb. 
pressure.  One  duplex  pump  furnished  water  under  pressure  to 
the  pump  stuffing  box  and  cutter-head  bearing.  Two  other 
duplex  pumps  were  used  to  supply  the  boilers  directly  or  through 
a  400-h.p.  feed-water  heater.  The  pumps  were  arranged  to  take 
suction  either  from  cold  water  or  the  hot  well,  as  did  the  injectors, 
one  of  which  was  used  with  each  boiler. 

Electric  current  was  supplied  by  a  6  k.w.  electric  generator  and 
furnished  light  for  night  work. 

The  hoisting  engine  was  provided  with  five  drums  and  was 
operated  by  a  double-cylinder  engine  of  45  horse  power.  Upon  the 
forward  shaft,  the  drums  on  each  side  swung  the  dredge  and  the 


426      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

center  drum  raised  or  lowered  the  suction  ladder  or  boom.  The 
two  rear  drums  operated  the  two  spuds  at  the  stern  of  the  hull. 
A  winch  head  was  placed  at  each  side  of  the  deck  for  mooring 
purposes.  The  pilot  or  operating  house  was  placed  directly  over 
the  engine  and  the  operator  by  means  of  12  levers  had  complete 
control  of  the  hoisting  and  lowering  of  the  ladder  and  the  spuds, 
the  swinging  of  the  dredge  and  the  speed  of  the  cutter. 

The  "Oneida"  excavated  that  section  of  the  New  York  State 
Barge  Canal  commencing  at  the  junction  of  Fish  Creek  and 
Oneida  Lake  and  following  the  creek  valley  for  a  distance  of 
about  5  miles. 

The  material  excavated  was  a  loose  sandy  loam  and  in  many 
places  large  quantities  of  quicksand  were  encountered.  The  depth 
of  excavation  at  Oneida  Lake  was  about  15  ft.  and  gradually  in- 
creased to  25  ft.  at  the  eastern  end  of  the  section. 

The  dredge  was  one  of  two  constructed  by  the  New  York 
Shipbuilding  Company  of  Camden,  N.  J.,  for  the  Empire 
Engineering  Corporation,  which  executed  two  contracts  on  the 
canal  with  these  two  excavators. 

The  hull  of  the  dredge  was  constructed  of  steel  and  had  an  overall 
length  of  97  ft.,  beam  width  of  17.5  ft.,  molded  depth  to  deck  of 
10ft.  and  draft  of  5.5  feet.  The  general  shape  of  the  hull  was  that 
of  a  huge  rectangular  box  with  the  bilges  rounded  off.  The 
frames  were  of  3-in.  X  3-in.  X  %$-w.  angles,  in  one  piece  from  keel 
to  deck  and  spaced  21  in.  c.  to  c.  The  reverse  frames  were  of 
2^-in.  X  2J4-in.  X  Ji"m-  angles  and  folio  wed  the  tops  of  the  10-in. 
X  %-in.  floor  plates,  every  alternate  one  extending  to  the  deck 
and  the  intermediate  one  extending  to  the  lower  stringers.  The 
deck  beams  were  4^-in.  X  3-in.  X  %-in.  angles;  one  attached  to 
each  frame  and  crowned  3  in.  in  the  center  of  the  vessel.  The 
center  keelson  extended  the  full  length  of  the  hull  and  intercostal 
keelsons  were  used  at  the  main  engine  foundations,  where  the 
hull  was  very  strongly  braced.  The  covering  of  the  hull  was 
steel  plates  %  in.  thick. 

The  suction  pipes  were  two  in  number  and  were  made  of  steel 
plates  and  angles  having  a  bearing  on  their  upper  sides  for  the  cut- 
ter shafts.  The  interior  diameter  of  these  pipes  was  19J4  in.,  thus 
giving  an  area  of  291  square  inches.  The  suction  pipes  extended 
from  the  centrifugal  pump  to  the  cutters  at  the  outer  ends.  The 
steel  plate,  intermediate  lengths  of  suction  pipes,  were  connected 
to  the  pump  by  cast-iron  breech  pipes  bolted  to  the  pump  and 


RIVERS,  HARBORS  AND  CANALS  427 

joined  the  pipes  by  heavy  steel  angle  flanges.  The  breech  pipes 
were  connected  at  their  forward  ends  to  two  Bates  curved  tele- 
scopic joints,  the  movable  interior  portions  of  which  were  bolted 
to  the  upper  end  of  the  ladders.  These  ladders  were  suspended  by 
means  of  heavy  brackets  from  trunnions,  the  axes  of  which  were 
those  of  the  telescopic  joints.  The  cutter  heads  were  mounted 
around  and  concentrically  with  the  ends  of  the  suction  pipes 
and  were  5.5  ft.  in  diameter  and  3%  ft.  in  height.  Each  cutter 
was  composed  of  12  knives  of  manganese  steel,  J-£  in.  thick.  The 
cutters  and  ladders  were  raised  and  lowered  by  two  sets  of  blocks 
having  five  sheaves  in  each  block  and  using  %-in.  wire  rope.  The 
power  to  operate  the  ladders  was  furnished  by  two  independent, 
compound,  vertical,  reversing  engines  of  100  h.p.  each.  These 
engines  were  located  back  to  back  in  the  forward  engine  room. 
In  the  same  engine  room  were  located  a  service  pump,  electric 
light  plant  and  blower  engine.  The  service  pump  was  used  as 
an  auxiliary  feed  pump  and  discharged  to  the  boilers,  ladder  and 
cutter-head  bearings,  fire  service  pipes  and  over  board.  On  the 
supply  of  suction  heads,  it  was  connected  to  the  hot  well,  canal, 
bilges  and  settling  tank. 

The  centrifugal  pump  was  located  in  the  after  engine  room  and 
was  provided  with  two  suctions  having  a  diameter  of  19^  in. 
and  a  discharge  of  26  in.  diameter.  The  casing  of  the  pump  was 
made  in  five  pieces;  a  throat  piece  containing  a  steel  knife,  two 
upper  and  two  lower  segments.  The  runner  was  of  cast  steel 
and  had  a  diameter  of  6J^  feet. 

The  pump  was  direct  connected  to  a  triple-expansion  engine 
which  developed  750  h.p.  at  a  speed  of  165  r.p.m.,  cutting  off 
steam  in  the  H.P.  cylinder  at  about  six-tenths  of  the  stroke.  The 
H.P.  cylinder  has  a  diameter  of  17  in.,  the  I. P.  cylinder  a  diameter 
of  25  in.,  and  the  L.P.  cylinder  a  diameter  of  42  inches.  The 
average  stroke  was  24  inches. 

A  separate  engine  was  used  to  operate  the  two  spuds  at  the 
stern  of  the  hull.  This  engine  was  of  the  horizontal  type  with 
two  cylinders  6^  inches  X  8  inches. 

Steam  was  supplied  from  two  standard  water-tube  boilers, 
working  at  200-lb.  pressure  and  having  a  combined  heating  sur- 
face of  3750  sq.  ft.  and  a  grate  area  of  95  square  feet.  The  engine 
was  compound  geared  and  provided  with  reverse  link  motion. 
The  drums  were  18  in.  in  diameter  and  were  controlled  by  a  fric- 


428      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

tion  hand  brake.  Flat  cables,  3  in.  X  %  in.  were  used  and  these 
were  run  at  a  speed  of  40  ft.  per  minute. 

On  the  forward  deck  of  the  dredge  was  placed  a  two-cylinder 
steam  winch  with  S^  in.  X  10  in.  cylinders.  There  were  two 
drums,  each  having  a  diameter  of  18  in.  and  face  width  of  38  in. 
to  hold  1000  ft.  of  5^-in.  wire  rope  in  four  layers;  and  also  two 
drums,  each  24  in.  in  diameter  and  having  a  face  width  of  16  in., 
to  hold  400  ft.  of  %-in.  wire  rope  in  three  layers. 

The  discharge  pipe  was  supported  on  16  intermediate  and  one 
terminal  pontoon.  It  was  also  found  necessary  at  times  to  use 
two  pontoons,  each  6  ft.  wide,  one  on  each  side  of  the  dredge,  to 
secure  necessary  stability  while  in  operation. 

The  excavation  began  October  1,  1906,  and  was  -worked  one 
8-hr,  shift  daily,  during  the  early  part  of  this  month.  Later, 
two  8-hr,  shifts  were  used  and  from  November,  1906  on,  three 
8-hr,  shifts  were  used.  The  work  of  the  dredge  was  in  charge  of 
a  chief  engineer  and  a  chief  operator.  Following  is  the  labor 
schedule  for  each  9-hr,  shift. 


1  operator @  $100 . 00  per  month 

1  engineer @  100 . 00  per  month 

1  engineer @  80 . 00  per  month 

3  firemen @  70 . 00  per  month  each 

1  spudman @  60.00  per  month 

1  oiler @  50.00  per  month 

4  deckhands @  50 . 00  per  month  each 


Besides  the  above  force  was  a  gang  which  moved  the  discharge 
pipe  and  repaired  the  levees  along  the  canal  and  behind  which  the 
spoil  was  deposited.  An  engineer  or  operator  for  the  gasoline 
launch,  which  towed  the  fuel  scow,  and  a  night  watchman  were 
also  constantly  employed. 

The  following  table  gives  the  labor  costs  of  excavation  for  this 
hydraulic  dredge  during  the  month  of  November,  1906. 

The  " laborers"  were  those  in  the  gang  employed  in  moving 
the  discharge  pipe  and  repairing  the  levees. 


RIVERS,  HARBORS  AND  CANALS  429 

TABLE  XXVII. — COST  OF  LABOR  FOR  HYDRAULIC  DREDGE 


Description 

No.  of  days 

Rate 

Amount 

1  chief  engineer 

30 

$150  00 

$150  00 

1  chief  operator  •  
3  engineers       .                  .... 

30 
86 

135.00 
100  00 

135.00 
286  67 

3  engineers 

86 

80  00 

229  33 

3  operators       

86 

100  00 

286  67 

9  firemen 

258 

70  00 

602  00 

3  spudmen  

86 

60  00 

172  00 

3  oilers 

86 

50  00 

143  33 

12  deckhands  

344 

50  00 

573  33 

1  night  watchman 

30 

1  60 

48  00 

1  foreman 

34  y. 

3  00 

102  75 

1  foreman  .  .          

37% 

2  00 

75  50 

Laborers 

1056>£ 

1  60 

1690  40 

1  engineer,  tug  

30 

80  00 

80  00 

$4574.98 

Amount  of  excavated  material 144,882  cu.  yd. 

Cost  of  excavation,  $4,574.98  -i-  144,882  =  $0.0316  per  cu.  yd. 

314.  Use  of  Hydraulic  Dredges  on  Panama  Canal. — The  fol- 
lowing is  a  statement  of  the  output  and  cost  of  operation  of  the 
fleet  of  six  suction  dredges  operating  on  the  Panama  Canal  dur- 
ing the  years  1915  and  1916. 

TABLE  XXVIII. — COSTS  OF  HYDRAULIC  DREDGE  OPERATIONS  ON  PANAMA 
CANAL,  1915  AND  1916 


Dredge 

Output,  cu.  yd. 

Cost 

Unit  cost 
per  cu.  yd. 

Earth 

Rock 

Total 

1915 


No.    4,  18  in. 

317,254 

6,650 

323,904 

$134,667.71 

$0.4158 

No.  82,  20  in. 

603,696 

50 

603,746 

151,057.31 

0.2999 

No.  83,  20  in. 

589,680 

64,954 

654,634 

145,015.31 

0.2215 

No.  84,  20  in. 

790,807 

26,846 

817,653 

139,448.31 

0.1705 

No.  85,  20  in. 

1,374,379 

1  374  379 

239002  31 

0  1739 

No.  86,  20  in. 

1,053,177 

92,853 

1,146,030 

281,156.79 

0.2453 

1916 


No.  4,  18  in. 
No.  82,  20  in. 

204,520 
117,023 

265,005 

469,525 
117,023 

$186,264.04 
72,224  84 

$0.3967 
0.6172 

No.  83,  20  in. 
No.  84,  20  in. 
No.  85,  20  in. 
No.  86,  20  in. 

221,188 
180,784 
827,342 
763,374 

161,726 
173,711 
4,187 
24,374 

382,914 
354,495 
831,529 
787,748 

148,762.86 
142,399.30 
162,588.79 
260,318.24 

0.3885 
0.4017 
0.1995 
0.3304 

430      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

315.  Resume. — The  improvement  of  rivers,  harbors  and  canals 
consists  principally  in  the  construction  of  artificial  channels  by 
some  form  of  excavator.  The  river  and  harbor  work  is,  of  course, 
largely  subaqueous  and  requires  the  use  of  some  type  of  floating 
dredge.  Considerable  canal  work  is  done  in  dry-earth  sections 
where  some  form  of  dry-land  machine  can  be  efficiently  used. 

Work  of  this  character  is  of  considerable  magnitude  and  extent, 
and  justifies  the  use  of  an  extensive  and  expensive  equipment. 
The  initial  cost  of  the  plant  can  be  distributed  over  a  large  amount 
of  work,  and  thus  only  slightly  affect  the  unit  cost. 

The  type  of  excavator  to  use  for  subaqueous  work  depends 
largely  upon  the  size  of  the  job,  depth  of  digging  and  character 
of  material.  The  dipper  dredge  is  undoubtedly  the  most  uni- 
versally adaptable  machine  for  all  kinds  of  material,  and  the  use 
of  machines  of  large  capacity  and  power  have  made  it  an  econom- 
ical machine  for  work  of  great  magnitude.  Where  obstructions 
such  as  stone  and  large  boulders  abound,  the  dipper  dredge  is 
the  most  practicable  machine. 

The  ladder  dredge  must  have  plenty  of  room  for  manipula- 
tion and  operation.  It  is  especially  efficient  in  the  excavation 
of  material  of  a  uniform,  dense  character,  such  as  clay  and  gravel. 
The  hopper  type  of  dredge  is  generally  used  for  deep-water 
work  and  when  built  of  steel  and  strongly  braced  has  proved  to  be 
seaworthy  and  satisfactory. 

The  hydraulic  dredge  is  a  very  inefficient  machine  in  its  use  of 
power,  but  with  a  pump  efficiency  of  60  per  cent,  to  70  per  cent, 
and  careful  regulation  as  to  feeding  of  the  material  into  the  suc- 
tion pipe,  it  may  be  used  very  economically  in  the  excavation  of 
large  quantities  of  soft  material  such  as  sand,  gravel  and  clay. 
The  style  and  operation  of  the  cutter  is  a  very  important  factor 
in  the  excavation  of  the  harder  materials. 

The  following  is  a  brief  statement1  of  the  comparative  use  of 
the  various  types  of  excavators  on  Contract  66  of  the  New  York 
State  Barge  Canal  from  1909  to  1912. 

The  contract  comprised  the  removal  of  about  650,000  cu.  yd. 
from  a  prism  having  a  bottom  width  of  50  ft.  and  3  ft.  deep,  the 
side  slopes  on  the  berm  sides  being  25  ft.  wide  and  12  ft.  deep. 

The  following  table  gives  a  summary  of  the  output.  The 
steam  shovel  only  operated  during  the  winter  season,  when  the 

1  Abstracted  from  Engineering  and  Contracting,  May  21,  1913. 


RIVERS,  HARBORS  AND  CANALS 


431 


canal  was  dry  and  Koppel  car  outfits  were  used  to  transport  the 
excavated  material.  The  cranes  handled  scale  buckets  set  on 
portable  transverse  tracks  in  the  bed  of  the  canal,  and  were 
loaded  by  hand  and  pushed  to  the  crane,  which  dumped  the 
buckets  upon  the  spoil  banks.  For  the  wet  excavation,  derrick 
boats  equipped  with  orange-peel  and  clam-shell  buckets  were 
used  for  a  minor  part,  and  the  ladder  dredge  "Mineola"  for  the 
major  part  of  the  work. 


Method  of 
Operation 

Output  (cu.  yd.) 

Total 
cost 

Unit  cost 
per  cu.  yd. 

1909 

1910           1911 

1912 

Total 

Teams,  scrapers.  .  .  . 

33,923 

49,507 

15,799 

5,000 

104,229 

$51,688 

$0.499 

Steam  shovel  

69,743 

34,945 

43,850 

16,300 

164,868 

82,005 

0.497 

Cranes 

36,072 

20,000 

56,072 

27,832 

0.494 

Clam-shells,  orange- 
peels 

27,014 

40,071 

__..._ 

86,964 

43,239 

0.497 

Ladder  dredges  

56,137 

115,344 

45,469 

23,050 

240,000 

119,280 

0.493 

Totals  

159,903 

226,810 

181,261 

84,259 

652,133 

$324,044 

316.  Bibliography. — The  reader  should  consult  the  following 
for  further  information : 

Books 

1.  "The  Chicago  Main  Drainage  Channel,"  by  C.  S.  HILL,  published  in 
1896  by  Engineering  News  Publishing  Company,  New  York.     129  pages, 
105  figures,  8  in.  X  11  in. 

2.  "Dredges  and  Dredging,"  by  CHARLES  PRELINI,  published  in  1911  by 
D.  Van  Nostrand,  New  York.     6  in.   X  9  in.     294  pages,  figures.     Cost, 
$3.00. 

3.  "The  Improvement  of  Rivers,"  by  THOMAS  &  WATT,  published  in 
1903  by  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  New  York.     9  in.  X  UK  in.     772  pages,  83 
figures.     Cost,  $7.50. 

4.  "Regulation  of  Rivers,"  by  J.  L.  VAN  ORNUM,  published  in  1914  by 
McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  New  York.     6  in.   X  9  in.     404  pages,  99 
figures.     Cost,  $4.00. 

5.  "Steam  Shovels  and  Steam  Shovel  Work,"  by  E.  A.  HERMANN,  pub- 
lished in   1894  by  Engineering   News  Publishing   Company,   New  York. 
7  in.  X  9%  in.     60  pages,  98  figures. 

Magazine  Articles 

1.  Construction  Work  on  the  Cape  Cod  Canal.     Excavating  Engineer, 
September,  1913.     Illustrated,  3700  words. 

2.  Construction  Work  on  the  New  York  State  Barge  Canal.     Engineering 
News,  July  29,  1909.     1800  words. 


432     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

3.  Cost  of  Deep-water  Dredging  with  a  Clam-shell  Dredge  for  the  Stony 
Point  Extension  of  the  Buffalo,   N.  Y.,  Breakwater.     Engineering  News, 
October  11,  1906.     1000  words. 

4.  Cost  of  Excavating  4,151,000  cu.  yd.  of  Material  with  51  Dipper  and 
Bucket  Dredges  in  1911.     Engineering-Contracting,  October  16,  1912. 

5.  Cost  of  Dredging  29,708,465  cu.  yd.  of  material  with  24  Sea-going 
Hopper  Dredges  During  1912.     Engineering  &  Contracting,  April  30,  1913. 
3500  words. 

6.  The  Cost  of  Hydraulic  Dredging  on  the  Mississippi  River,  Lieut.-Col. 
C.  B.  SEARS.     Engineering  Record,  March  21,  1908.     1200  words. 

7.  A  Desirable  Method  of  Dredging  Channels  through  River  Bars,  S. 
MAXINOFF.     Transactions  of   the   American   Society   of   Civil   Engineers, 
December,  1903  and  January,  1904.     Illustrated,  4300  words. 

8.  Digging  Gravel  from  River  Bed  by  a  Cableway  Excavator.     Contrac- 
tor, August  15,  1916.     Illustrated,  1500  words. 

9.  Double  Drag-line  Cableway  Excavator  for  Canal  Works.     Engineering 
Record,  January  Record,  January  13,  1914.     Illustrated,  700  words. 

10.  Drag-line  Work  on  the  Canal  del  Rogue,  Cuba,  A.  J.  LEONHARDT. 
Excavating  Engineer,  November,  1916.     Illustrated,  1300  words. 

11.  Dredgers  on  the  New  York  State  Barge  Canal.     Engineering,  London, 
September  22,  1911. 

12.  Dredges  and  Dredging  in  Mobile  Harbor,  J.  M.  PRATT.     Engineering- 
Contracting,  March  20,  1912.     4500  words. 

13.  Dredges  and  Dredging  on  the  Mississippi  River,  J.  A.  OCKERSON. 
Proceedings  of  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  June,  1898.     Illus- 
trated, 28,300  words. 

14.  Dredges  on  the  New  York  State  Barge  Canal.     Engineering,  London, 
September  22,  1911.     Illustrated,  2000  words. 

15.  Dredging  Equipment  for  Harbor  Maintenance.     Engineering  Record, 
March  8,  1913.     1800  words. 

16.  Dredging  by  Hydraulic  Method,  G.  W.  CATT.     Iowa  Engineer,  March, 
1915.     Illustrated,  3500  words. 

17.  Dredging  in  New  South  Wales,  C.  W.  DAILEY.     Engineering,  London, 
June,  1903.     1200  words. 

18.  Dredging  Operations  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada.     Engineering  News, 
November  7,  1912.     2500  words. 

19.  Dredging  in  the  Havana  Harbor.     Engineering  Record,  November  22, 
1913.     Illustrated,  600  words. 

20.  Dredging  New  Haven  Harbor,  E.  S.  LANE.     Yale  Scientific  Monthly, 
November,  1906.     Illustrated,  1500  words. 

21.  The  Dredging  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River.     Engineering-Contracting, 
November  4,  1908. 

22    Dredging  "Sudd"  on  the  River  Nile.     Engineering  News,  March  18, 
1915.     Illustrated,  600  words. 

23.  Dredging    the    Hooghly.     The   Engineer,    London,    July    13,    1906. 
Illustrated,  800  words. 

24.  Dredging    the    Saginaw    River.     Excavating   Engineer,    July,    1914. 
Illustrated,  1200  words. 

25.  Dredging  Work  on  the  Panama  Canal  Slides.     Engineering  News, 
April  22,  1915.     Illustrated,  2200  words. 


RIVERS,  HARBORS  AND  CANALS  433 

26.  Electric  Power  to  Dredge  a  Relocated  River  Channel.     Engineering 
Record,  November  11,  1916.     Illustrated,  1800  words. 

27.  English  and  American  Dredging  Practice,  A.  W.  ROBINSON.     Engi- 
neering News,  March  19,  1896.     1600  words. 

28.  Equipment  and  Performance  of  the  British  Columbia  Dredging  Fleet. 
Engineering  Record,  August  23,  1913.     Illustrated,  3000  words. 

29.  Excavating    Methods   and    Equipment   on    the    Cape    Cod    Canal. 
Engineering  News,  February  19,  1914.     Illustrated,  2500  words. 

30.  Excavation    Methods  with   Dredges  in   Improving   the  Low-water 
Channels  of  the  Po.     II  Monitore  Tecinco,   Milan,  Italy,  July  30,   1915. 
3500  words. 

31.  European   Sea-going   Dredges   and   Deep   Water   Dredging,    E.   L. 
CORTHELL.     Engineering   Magazine,    April  and    May,    1898.     Illustrated, 
8000  words. 

32.  Four-yard     Government    Dipper     Dredges.     International    Marine 
Engineering,  June,  1915.     Illustrated,  3000  words. 

33.  The  Fruhling  System  of  Suction  Dredging,  JOHN  REID.     Engineering 
News,  March  5,  1908.     Illustrated,  3500  words. 

34.  A  German  Excavator  on  the  New  York  State  Barge  Canal,  EMILE 
Low.     Engineering  Record,  April  21,  1906.     Illustrated,  700  words. 

35.  Harbor     Dredging,    BRYSON     CUNNINGHAM.     Comer's    Magazine, 
March,  1912.     Illustrated,  3000  words. 

36.  Hopper    Dredge    on    the    Panama    Canal.     Engineering,    London, 
October  20,  1911. 

37.  Hydraulic  Dredging  in  New  York  Harbor.     Railroad  Gazette,  August 
28,  1891. 

38.  Hydraulic  Dredging  in  the  Pacific  Division  of  the  Panama  Canal. 
Engineering  Record,  April  2,  1910.     Illustrated,  3500  words. 

39.  Hydraulic  Dredging  in  Tidal  Channels,  W.  H.  WHEELER.     Engineer- 
ing Record,  February  4,  1899.     5000  words. 

40.  Hydraulic  Dredging;  Its  Origin,  Growth  and  Present  Status,  W.  H. 
SMYTH.     Journal  of  the  Association  of  Engineering  Societies. 

41.  Hydraulic  Dredging  on  the  Upper  Mississippi  River.     Engineering 
News,  July  24,  1913.     Illustrated,  3000  words. 

42.  Improvement  of  Livingstone  Channel,  Detroit  River,  Dry  Excava- 
tion,  C.   Y.   DEXON.     Professional  Memoirs,   November-December,  1916. 
Illustrated,  2500  words. 

43.  Improvement  of  Mississippi  River  from  Winona  to  La  Cross.     Pro- 
fessional  Memoirs,  May- June,  1917.     Illustrated,  8  pages. 

44.  The  Improvement  of  the  Mississippi  River  by  Dredging,  H.  ST.  L. 
COPPEE.     Engineering  Magazine,  June,  1898.     Illustrated,  4500  words. 

45.  Keeping  Shovels  at  Work  at  Panama.     American  Machinist,  January 
25,  1912.     Illustrated,  2000  words. 

46.  Ladder  Dredge  on  the  Fox  River,   Wisconsin.     Engineering  News, 
October  25,  1906. 

47.  A  Large  Elevator  Dredge  for  Work  in  Boston  Harbor.     Engineering 
News,  January  27,  1910.     Illustrated,  800  words. 

48.  Large  Revolving  Steam  Shovel  for  Canal  Construction.     Engineering 
&  Contracting,  July  1,  1914.     Illustrated,  600  words. 

28 


434      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

49.  Largest  Dredging  Plant  in  the  World.     Engineering  News,  May  9, 
1912.     4000  words. 

50.  Methods  and  Costs  of  Operating  Lobintz  Rock  Breakers  and  Drill 
Boats  on  the  Panama  Canal,  S.  B.  WILLIAMSON.     Engineering-Contracting, 
May  29,  1912.     1500  words. 

51.  Methods  and  Costs  of  Rock  Excavation  in  the  Harbors  of  Aviales, 
San  Esteban  de  Praria  and  Pon  de  Billao,  Spain.     Engineering-Contracting, 
June  19,  1912.     4000  words. 

52.  Mechanical  Appliances  for  Canal  Construction,  E.  LEADER  WILLIAMS. 
Engineering  News,  October  31,  1891.     Illustrated,  1000  words. 

53.  Method  and  General  Cost  of  Rock  Excavation  for  the  Inlet  Swamp 
Drainage  District,   Illinois,   A.  W.   NAYLOR.     Engineering  &  Contracting, 
November  15,  1916.     800  words. 

54.  The  Method  of  Operating  a  Lobintz  Cutter  in  Canal  and  Harbor 
Works,  LINDON  BATES,  JR.     Engineering-Contracting,  December  18,   1907. 
2500  words. 

55.  Method  and  Costs  of  Drilling  and  Blasting  Subaqueous  Flint  Rock. 
Engineering  &  Contracting,  October  8,  1913.     Illustrated,  2500  words. 

56.  Methods  of  Excavating  Canal  Using  a  Bridge  Conveyor  Excavator 
with  Costs  of  Work  for  Twenty-four  Consecutive  Months.     Engineering- 
Contracting,    November    23,     1910.     Illustrated,  1800    words. 

57.  Methods  of  Subaqueous  Rock  Excavation,  Buffalo  Harbor,  N.  Y. 
Engineering  News,  July  6,  1915.     Illustrated,  1000  words. 

58.  Methods  of  Submarine  Rock  Drilling  with  Drill  Boats,  with  Records 
of    Performance,    Detroit    River    Improvement.     Engineering-Contracting, 
October  9,  1912. 

59.  Modern  Dredging  Appliances  for  Waterways,  J.  A.  SEAGER.     Gassier' s 
Magazine,  January,  1910.     Illustrated,  3500  words. 

60.  Neponset   River   Improvements  in   Massachusetts,   E.    M.   BLAKE. 
Excavating  Engineer,  April,  1913.     Illustrated,  2000  words. 

61.  New  Bucket  Dredgers  for  the  Kaiser  Wilhelm  Canal.     International 
Marine  Engineering,  May,  1910.     Illustrated,  2500  words. 

62.  A  New  Canal  Excavator.     Railroad  Gazette,   September  25,    1891. 
Illustrated,  400  words. 

63.  New  15-cu.  yd.  Dipper  Dredges  for  the  Panama  Canal.     Engineering 
News,  March  12,  1914.     Illustrated,  2000  words. 

64.  Operation  of  Hydraulic  Pipe-line  Dredges  in  the  Mobile,  Ala.,  Dis- 
trict.    Professional  Memoirs,  July- August,  1916.     Illustrated,  6500  words. 

65.  The  Operation  of  Rock  Breakers  at  Black  Rock  Harbor.     Engineering 
Record,  January  7,  1911. 

66.  Panama   Canal   Dredge   "Corozal,"    W.    G.   COMBER.     Engineering 
News,  January  25,  1912.     Illustrated,  2500  words. 

67.  Powerful    Dredger    for    Panama    Canal.     The    Engineer,    London, 
October  20,  1911.     Illustrated,  400  words. 

68.  Powerful  Drill-car  Effective  in  Uneven  Spongy  Rock,  J.  B.  BASSETT. 
Engineering  News-Record,  April  12,  1917.     Illustrated,  2000  words. 

69.  Recent  Dredging  Operations  at  Oakland  Harbor,  California,  L.  J. 
LE  CONTE.     Transactions  of  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  Vol. 
XIII,  1884. 


RIVERS,  HARBORS  AND  CANALS  435 

70.  Record  and  Costs  of  Work  of  Dipper  Dredges  Operated  by  the  U.  S 
Engineers  in  River  and  Harbor  Improvements.     Engineering  &  Contracting, 
August  13,  1913.     4000  words. 

71.  Removal  of  Subaqueous  Rock  at  Blythe.     Institution  of  Civil  Engi- 
neers, 1907.     Illustrated,  4000  words. 

72.  Removing  Subaqueous  Rock  Under  Difficult  Conditions.     Engineer- 
ing, London,  February  2,  1917.     Illustrated,  2200  words. 

73.  A  Review  of  Methods  Employed  for  Removing  Subaqueous  Rock. 
Engineering-Contracting,  May  29,  1912.     3000  words. 

74.  River  and  Harbor  Dredging.     Indian  and  Eastern  Engineer,  June, 
1898.     Illustrated,  2400  words. 

75.  River  Diversion  and  Flood  Control  in  Missouri.     Engineering  News, 
August  24,  1916.     Illustrated,  3000  words. 

76.  Rock  Drilling  in  the  Tennessee  River.     Engineering  Record,  Novem- 
ber 1,  1913.     2000  words. 

77.  Rock  Excavation  at  Sydney  Harbor.     Compressed  Air,  August,  1913. 
1500  words. 

78.  Rock    Excavation    by    Mechanical    Power    Instead    of    Explosions. 
Engineering  News,  June  25,  1908.     2200  words. 

79.  State  Barge  Canal.     Engineering-Contracting,  March  23,  1910. 

80.  Sluicing  Silt  to  Reduce  Canal  Leakage,  FRED  J.  BARNES.     Engineering 
News-Record,  May  17,  1917.     Illustrated,  2000  words. 

81.  Some  Accounts  of  Dipper  Dredge  Performance  on  the  New  York 
Barge  Canal.     Engineering  &  Contracting,  April  29,  1914.     2000  words. 

82.  Some  Records  of  Work  with  a  Scraper  Bucket  Excavator  on  the  New 
York  State  Barge  Canal.     Engineering-Contracting,  March  23,  1910.     1000 
words. 

83.  Steam  Delivery  Dredger  on  the  Leeds  and  Liverpool  Canal .     Engineer- 
ing, London,  June  16,  1893. 

84.  Subaqueous  Excavation  at  the  Halifax  Ocean  Terminals.     Engineer- 
ing News,  February  3,  1916.     Illustrated,  1200  words. 

85.  Subaqueous   Rock  Excavation.     Engineering  News,   November   18, 
1915,  November  25,  1915  and  December  2,  1915.     Illustrated,  1000  words. 

88.  Subaqueous  Rock  Removal,  B.  CUNNINGHAM.     Cassier's  Magazine, 
March,  1908.     Illustrated,  2500  words. 

87.  Ten-yard  Clam-shell  Dredge  for  the  Buffalo,  N.  Y.  Breakwater  Con- 
struction.    Engineering  News,  February  2,  1899.     Illustrated,  1500  words. 

88.  The  Cape  Cod  Canal,  W.  B.  PARSONS.     Proceedings  of  the  American 
Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  August,  1917.     Illustrated,  143  pages. 

89.  Three    15-cu.    yd.    Dipper    Dredges,    Gamboa,    Paraiso    and    Cas, 
cades,  as  Supplied  and  Used  on  the  Panama  Canal,  RAY  W.  BUDEAU,  JR. 
Proceedings  of  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  August,  1917.     Illus- 
trated, 13  pages. 

90.  The  Van  Buren  Excavator.     Iron  Age,  October  7,  1909.     Illustrated, 
1500  words. 

91.  The  Welland  Ship  Canal,  J.  G.  BECK.     Excavating  Engineer,  February 
1915.     Illustrated,  1500  words. 

92.  Widening  the  Main  Channel,  Chicago  Drainage  Canal.     Excavating 
Engineer,  September,  1914.     Illustrated,  2500  words. 


CHAPTER  XXI 
MUNICIPAL  IMPROVEMENTS 

317.  Preliminary. — This  chapter  will  take  up  the  discussion  of 
the  various  excavating  machines  used  in  the  various  phases  of 
municipal  improvement,  with  the  exception  of  street  and  pave- 
ment construction  which  is  described  in  Chapter  XVII,  on  High- 
way Construction.     The  excavation  of  open  ditches,  canals  and 
reservoirs  is  fully  discussed  in  Chapter  XIX  on  Reclamation 
Work.     The  reader  is  referred  to  these  chapters  for  information 
on  these  subjects.     Hence,  this  chapter  will  deal  with  the  methods 
and  costs  of  digging  trenches  for  water  and  sewer  pipes,  cellars 
and  basements  for  buildings,   foundations  for   power   houses, 
pumping  plants,  sewage  disposal  plants,  etc.     The  subject  will 
be  presented  under  the  two  divisions;  I,  Trench  Excavation  and 
II,   Foundation   and  Basement   Excavation.     The   division  of 
Trench  Excavation  will  be  considered  in  two  parts;  A — Pipe- 
trench  Excavation  and  B — Tile-trench  Excavation. 

I.  TRENCH  EXCAVATION 
A — PIPE-TEENCH  EXCAVATION 

318.  General. — The  advantages  of  machinery  in  the  excava- 
tion of  trenches  depend  on  the  depth,  character  of  material,  and 
local  conditions  of  labor  supply,  transportation  facilities,  etc. 
For  trenches  under  3  ft.  in  width  the  minimum  depth  justifying 
the  use  of  excavators  is  about  6  ft.,  while  for  trenches  3  ft.  and 
over  in  width,  the  economical,  governing  depth  is  about  10  feet. 
The  direct  advantages  from  the  use  of  machinery  in  trenching 
are;  increased  output,  less  liability  of  bank  caving,  less  obstruc- 
tion to  street  traffic,  and  the  availability  of  hoisting  apparatus 
(with  some  type  of  excavators)  for  the  raising  of  boulders  and 
other  obstructions,  and  the  lowering  of  pipes.     At  the  present 
time  (1918),  the  scarcity  and  high  cost  of  hand  labor  (40  cents 
per  hour),  make  the  use  of  machinery  necessary  whenever  the 
economic  conditions  justify  it.     For  shallow  trenches  and  work 
of  small  magnitude,  it  is  clearly  evident  that  the  cost  of  trans- 

436 


MUNICIPAL  IMPROVEMENTS  437 

portation  and  erection,  dismantling  and  re-loading  on  car,  to- 
gether with  the  freight  charges  would  result  in  a  loss  to  the 
contractor. 

319.  Scrapers. — Drag  and  wheel  scrapers  have  been  used  to 
some  extent,  for  the  removal  of  the  top  section  of  wide  trenches. 
However,  this  method  has  been  almost  entirely  superseded  by 
some  form  of  power  excavator  or  trench  machine,  which  can  or- 
dinarily handle  the  material  more  efficiently  and  economically. 

320.  Power  Shovels. — The  power  shovel,  in  recent  times,  has 
been  adapted  to  t  ench  excavation  by  the  use  of  a  long  dipper 
handle  or  a  high  boom  or  a  combination  of  the  two.     The  re- 
volving shovel  has  been  used  for  making  the  first  cut  of  deep 
sewers  of  large   dimensions,   without   any  special   changes  or 
modifications  in  the  machine.     The  great  weight  of  the  machine 
is  carried  near  the  sides  of  the  trench  and  necessitates  extra 
heavy  bracing  to  prevent  undue  settlement  and  cave-ins.     It  is 
difficult  to  sheet  and  brace  a  trench  for  power-shovel  opera- 
tion, so  that  the  bracing  will  not  be  in  the  way  of  the  dipper. 
The  excavation,  under  such  conditions,  is  apt  to  be  too  wide 
or  too  narrow,  as  close  and  accurate  trimming  of  the  banks  is 
impossible. 

The  author  does  not  recommend  the  use  of  a  power  shovel  for 
trench  excavation,  unless  the  trench  is  large  and  the  material 
hard.  The  delays  incident  to  this  class  of  work  result  in  the 
uneconomical  use  of  the  machine. 

321.  Use  of  Steam  Shovel  in  New  York. — By  the  use  of  a 
specially  rigged  boom,  called  a  " trench  boom,"  the  revolving 
type  of  shovel  may  be  very  efficiently  used  in  the  construction 
of  large  trenches  for  sewer  and  water  pipe.     During  the  latter 
part  of  the  year  1910,  in  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  a  1-yd.  steam  shovel 
having  a  working  weight  of  30  tons,  excavated  100  lineal  feet 
of  sewer  trench  per  day.     The  trench  was  60  in.  wide,  15  ft. 
to  18  ft.  in  depth,  and  the  material  excavated  was  very  hard 
clay.     On  this  contract,  the  steam  shovel  was  more  efficient  than 
the  regular  trench  excavators,  as  the  former  was  not  delayed  by 
the  breakdowns  and  repairs  which  the  latter  required. 

At  Batavia,  N.  Y.,  a  %-yd.  dipper,  revolving  steam  shovel 
excavated  85  lineal  feet  of  sewer  trench  per  day. 

Figure  179  shows  a  Seventy  C  Bucyrus  sewer  excavator  at  work. 
In  1910, l  an  investigation  was  made  of  the  use  of  a  steam-op- 
1  Abstracted  from  Engineering  Record,  May  23,  1914. 


438      EXCAVATION',  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

erated  revolving  shovel  in  the  excavation  of  pipe  trenches  through 
sandy  soil.  The  shovel  was  of  25-ton  capacity,  mounted  on  trac- 
tion wheels  and  equipped  with  a  1-yd.  dipper  and  dipper  arm 
specially  designed  for  the  work.  The  supporting  platform, 
upon  which  the  shovel  worked,  consisted  of  twelve  12  in.  X  12  in. 
timbers  spaced  4  in.  apart  and  bolted  together  in  sections  of  three. 
These  timbers  rested  upon  planks  laid  upon  the  ground  and  sup- 
ported planks  upon  which  the  traction  wheels  moved. 


FIG.  179. — Steam    shovel    excavating   large    sewer    trench.     (Courtesy   of   The 

Bucyrus  Co.) 

Considerable  difficulty  was  experienced  in  keeping  the  trench 
properly  braced,  and  many  delays  resulted  from  cave-ins  and 
"waits"  for  sheeting  to  be  installed. 

The  following  is  an  analysis  of  the  work  of  the  shovel  for  1 
day's  operation 

Kind  of  shovel 25-ton 

Capacity  of  dipper 1  yd. 

Length  of  move 4  ft. 

Number  of  moves 20 

Average  time  to  sheet  trench 92  min. 

Average  time  to  move  up 4.5  min. 

Time  worked  by  shovel 565  min. 

Depth  of  cut 9  ft. 

Width  of  cut 36  in. 

Output 80  cu.  yd. 

Unit  cost  per  cu.  yd 22 . 6  cents 


MUNICIPAL  IMPROVEMENTS 

Daily  Cost  of  Operation 

1    runner $5 . 00 

1    fireman 2.31 

1    laborer 1 . 75 

1    laborer 1 . 65 

Supplies 4.50 

Interest  and  depreciation,  17^  per  cent,  on  $4500 

(based  on  200  working  days  per  year) 4 . 00 


Total 


565 


439 


$19.21 


Unitcost,$19.21  X^"  =  $18. 10;  $18. 10  +  80  =  $0.226  per  cu.  yd. 


PROCESS  ANALYSIS 


Time, 
minutes 

Per  cent. 

Cost  —  cents 
per  cu.  yd. 

Actual  digging 

202 

35   8 

8    10 

Delays  '  A  —  Sheeting  trench  

184 

32.6 

7.35 

B  —  JVloving  up 

90 

15.9 

3.60 

0  —  Due  to  curve  

89 

15.7 

3.55 

Totals  

565 

100.0 

22.60 

322.  Use  of  Steam  Shovel  in  Chicago,  111.1 — A  70-ton  steam 
shovel  was  used  in  1909,  for  the  excavation  of  a  sewer  trench 
on  Western  Avenue,  Chicago,  111.  The  shovel  was  a  70-ton 
Bucyrus  mounted  on  a  38  ft.  X  24  ft.  platform  resting  on  wooden 
rollers.  The  machine  was  moved  by  a  cable  with  block  and  fall, 
attached  to  a  "deadman"  and  operated  by  the  shovel  engine. 

The  trench  was  16  ft.  wide  and  28  ft.  deep;  the  cut  being  made 
in  two  benches,  the  first  10  ft.  and  the  second  16  feet.  Sheeting 
was  required  to  a  depth  of  10  ft.  only.  The  material  was  loam 
to  a  depth  of  10  ft.,  and  underlaid  by  glacial  clay.  Trimmers 
followed  the  shovel  and  prepared  the  sides  of  the  trench  for  the 
sheeting.  The  shovel  excavated  a  section  of  the  10  ft.  bench 
and  then  backed  up  and  cut  the  second  bench.  The  machine 
while  operating  on  the  second  bench,  was  supported  by  I-beams, 
•  braced  every  20  ft.  by  jacks.  The  I-beams  held  the  sheeting  in 
place  until  the  shovel  had  passed,  when  the  regular  bracing  was 


1  Abstracted  from   Handbook  of    Steam    Shovel  Work,   The    Bucyrus 
Company. 


440     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

installed.     The  excavated  material  was  transported  by  trains 
of  4-yd.  and  6-yd.  dump  cars  hauled  by  18-ton  dinkeys. 

The  following  is  an  analytical  statement  of  1  day's  operation 
of.  the  shovel. 


Kind  of  shovel 70-ton 

Capacity  of  dipper 2  yd. 

Average  length  of  move 15  ft. 

Number  of  moves • 4 

Average  time  to  move  up 33^  sec. 

Working  time 602  min. 

Depth  of  cut 26  ft. 

Width  of  cut 16  ft. 

Output 569  cu.  yd. 

Unit  cost  per  cu.  yd 6.7  cents 

Cost  of  Operation 

1  runner $5 . 00 

1  craneman 3 . 60 

1  fireman 2. 00 

7  rollermen 10 . 50 

Supplies 9 .00 

Interest  and  depreciation  at   17%   per  cent,   on 

$9000  (based  on  200  working  days)  . . . 8 . 00 

Total $38. 10 

Unit  cost: $38.10  -h  569  =  $0.067  per  cu.  yd. 

PROCESS  ANALYSIS 

Time,  p  t          Cost,  cents  per 

minutes  cu.  yd. 

Actual  digging 270.5  44.9  3.01 

Delays :  A — Waiting  on  sheeters. ...  50 . 0  8.4  0 . 56 

B— Moving  up 135.0  22.4  1.51 

C— Waiting  on  cars 139.5  23.2  1.55 

D — Miscellaneous 7.0  1.1  0.07 

Total..  602.0  100.0  6.70 


323.  Use  of  Steam  Shovel  for  Backfilling  in  Minneapolis, 
Minn. — During  1914,  a  steam  shovel  was  used  for  the  backfil- 
ling of  large  water  main  trenches  in  the  streets  of  Minneapolis, 
Minn.  Figure  180  shows  the  shovel  in  operation. 


MUNICIPAL  IMPROVEMENTS 


441 


The  shovel  was  equipped  with  a  M-yd.  dipper  and  the  fol- 
lowing is  a  statement  of  the  cost  of  operation  during  an  8-hr, 
working  day. 

Labor: 

1  engineer $6 . 00 

1  fireman 2 . 50 

2  laborers  @  $2 . 50  ..  5.00 


Total  labor  cost . 


$13.50 


Fio.    180.— Revolving    steam    shovel    backfilling   large    trench.     (Courtesy   of 
City  Engineer,  Minneapolis,  Minn.) 

Miscellaneous: 

Coal,  K  ton  ©$6.00 $3.00 

Oil,  grease  and  waste 0.15 

Repairs  and  overhead  charges 1 . 05 

Total  miscellaneous . .  $4 . 20 


Total  cost  of  excavating  354  cu.  yd $17 . 70 

Cost  of  excavation  of  1  cu.  yd $17.70-5-  354  =  $0.05. 

324.  Grab  Bucket  Excavators. — Various  types  of  dry-land  ex- 
cavators have  been  successfully  used  in  trench  excavation.     The 


442      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

drag-line  machine  is  not  so  well  adapted  to  this  class  of  work  on 
account  of  the  limitations  of  space  for  the  operation  of  a  scraper 
bucket,  but  this  form  of  machine  is  very  efficient  in  trench  ex- 
cavation through  the  softer  soils  when  equipped  with  some  form 
of  grab  bucket. 

325.  Use  of  Locomotive  Crane  in  Indiana.1 — A  simple  form  of 
locomotive  crane  was  used  during  the  season  of  1908  for  the 
excavation  of  a  sewer  trench  in  Gary,  Indiana.  The  excavator 
consisted  of  a  %-cu.  yd.  Hayward  orange-peel  bucket  operated  by 
a  25  h.p.  hoisting  engine  and  a  separate  swinging  engine.  The 
whole  machine  was  mounted  on  a  heavy  platform  supported  on 
rollers  and  moved  ahead  by  means  of  a  wire  cable  attached  to  a 
"deadman"  ahead. 

The  trench  had  a  rectangular  cross-section  of  30  ft.  width  and 
a  depth  of  12  ft.,  and  in  the  bottom  was  a  secondary  rectangular 
channel,  10  ft.  wide  and  4  ft.  deep.  The  material  excavated  was 
a  fine  lake  sand  and  the  last  3  to  4  ft.  of  excavation  was  in  water. 

The  labor  schedule  was  as  follows: 

1  engineer  @  $6 . 00  per  day 
1  foreman  @  $3 . 50  per  day 
5  laborers  @  $1 . 50  per  day 

The  work  was  commenced  on  April  2,  1908,  and  the  first 
1830  ft.  were  completed  May  31,  1908.  The  machine  was  shut 
down  5  days  for  repairs  and  a  night  crew  worked  13  extra 
shifts,  so  that  a  total  of  51  shifts  or  working  days  were  used  for 
this  work. 

The  following  table  will 'give  the  cost  of  the  work. 

Labor: 

1  engineer  @  $6.00 $306.00 

1  foreman  @  $3.50 178.50 

5  laborers  @  $1 .50 382.50 

Extra  labor  of  engineer  and  fireman  for  5  days  mak- 
ing repairs 47 . 50 

Total  labor  expense $914 . 50 

Fuel  and  Supplies: 

Coal $255.00 

Oil,  waste  and  repairs 65 . 00 

Total $320.00 

Grand  total  expense $1234 . 50 

Total  amount  of  excavation 21,250  cu.  yd. 

Cost   of   excavation,  $1234.50  -s-  21,250  =  $0.058   per    cu.   yd. 

1  Abstracted  from  Engineering-Contracting,  July  15,  1908. 


MUNICIPAL  IMPROVEMENTS  443 

326.  Use  of  Locomotive  Cranes  in  Kentucky.1 — Three  Brown- 
ing locomotive  cranes  were  used  during  the  season  of  1910  in 
the  excavation  of  a  large  sewer  trench  in  Louisville,  Kentucky. 

The  trench  was  2723  ft.  long,  the  average  depth  of  excavation 
was  22.4  ft.,  and  the  average  amount  of  excavation  per  linear 
foot  of  trench  was  12.25  cubic  yards.  The  material  excavated 
consisted  of  blue  and  yellow  clay  to  a  depth  of  6  ft.,  yellow  clay 
and  loam  for  the  next  6  ft.  to  12  ft.  and  this  was  underlaid  with 
fine  and  coarse  sand. 

The  excavators  were  10-ton  Browning  locomotive  cranes,  one 
of  which  was  equipped  with  an  automobile  orange-peel  bucket 
of  1  cu.  yd.  capacity  and  one  with  an  automobile  clam-shell 
bucket  of  %  cu.  yd.  capacity.  The  cranes  ran  on  a  standard 
gage  track  of  60-lb.  and  65-lb.  rails.  The  cranes  operated 
as  follows:  Crane  No.  1,  equipped  with  an  Owens  clam-shell 
bucket,  moved  along  the  trench  and  excavated  the  first  10  feet, 
to  12  feet.  The  sheeting  was  started  as  soon  as  practicable  and 
Crane  No.  2,  equipped  with  a  %  cu.  yd.  bucket,  followed  and 
removed  the  balance  of  the  cut  to  grade.  The  excavated  mate- 
rial with  the  exception  of  the  sand  was  dumped  into  a  spoil 
bank  along  the  opposite  side  of  the  trench  from  the  track.  The 
sand  was  dumped  into  a  screen  and  used  for  concrete.  Crane 
No.  3  brought  up  the  rear  and  did  all  the  back-filling  and  pulling 
of  sheathing  and  timbering. 

The  following  are  the  labor  costs  per  working  day  of  10  hours. 

Crane  No.  1 

1  engineer $3 . 50 

1  fireman 2 . 00 

1  tagman 1 . 75 

1  signalman 1 . 75 

Total  labor  cost $9.00 

Average  excavation 200  cu.  yd. 

Cost  of  excavation  for  labor. $0.045  per  cu.  yd. 

Crane  No.  2 

1  engineer $3 . 50 

1  fireman 2 . 00 

1  foreman 2 . 00 

8  laborers  @  $1 .75 14.00 

Total  labor  cost $21 .50 

Average  excavation 225  cu.  yd. 

Cost  of  excavation  for  labor $0 . 095  per  cu.  yd. 

1  Abstracted  from  Engineering-Contracting,  June  29,  1910. 


444      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

Crane  No.  3 

1  engineer : $3 . 50 

1  fireman 2 . 00 

1  signalman 1 . 75 


Total  labor  cost $7.25 

Average  excavation 500  cu.  yd. 

Cost  of  excavation  for  labor $0 . 0145  per  cu.  yd. 

The  average  amount  of  coal  used  per  crane  per  day  was  1200 
Ib.  at  a  cost  of  $4  a  ton.  About  160  gal.  of  water  were  used 
.per  crane  a  day. 

The  cranes  cost  $5000  each  and  annual  interest  and  de- 
preciation was  allowed  for  at  the  rate  of  15  per  cent. 


FIG.  181. — Backfilling     machine     operating     on    sewer    trench.     (Courtesy    of 

F.  C.  Austin  Co.) 

327.  Backfilling  Machines. — During  the  last  5  years  (1913- 
18),  several  backfilling  machines  have  been  put  on  the  market 
and  have  proved  to  be  efficient  and  economical.  Backfilling  is 
often  an  expensive  part  of  sewer  and  water  supply  pipe  trench 
work  and  the  author  knows  of  cases  where  this  part  of  the  work 
has  cost  more  than  the  excavation.  One  machine  should  do  the 
work  of  from  10  to  20  laborers  and  this  is  an  economic  neces- 
sity at  the  present  time  (1918),  with  the  scarcity  and  high  cost 
of  common  labor. 

The  backfilling  machines  of  various  makes  are  all  of  similar 
construction  and  method  of  operation.  The  following  descrip- 
tion is  a  detailed  statement  of  a  typical  and  well-known  make. 

The  machine  consists  of  a  tractor  and  a  scraper.  See  Fig.  181. 
The  tractor  comprises  a  frame  7  ft.  X  10 J^  ft.,  mounted  on  four 


MUNICIPAL  IMPROVEMENTS  445 

30-in.  wheels  with  18-in.  tires  and  having  a  wheel  base  of  5J£  feet. 
At  one  side  of  the  frame  is  an  A-frame  from  the  head  of  which  is 
suspended  a  steel-framed  boom  having  a  reach  of  22  feet.  The 
operating  equipment  consists  of  a  10-h.p.  gasoline  engine  which 
drives  a  double-drum  hoisting  engine,  and  the  propelling  gear. 
The  clutches  of  the  drums  are  operated  by  pedals,  and  the  propell- 
ing-gear clutch  by  a  lever.  The  machine  is  steered  by  a  wheel. 
The  excavating  equipment  consists  of  a  steel-framed  boom  made 
in  sections  so  that  its  length  may  be  varied,  and  a  steel  scraper  or 
scraper  bucket.  The  scraper  is  operated  by  a  drag-line  and  a 
hoisting  line.  When  in  position  behind  the  spoil  bank,  the  drag- 
or  loading-line  is  hauled  in,  dragging  the  scraper  to  the  edge  of 
the  trench.  During  this  operation  the  hoisting  line  is  paid  out 
until  the  scraper  is  dumped,  when  this  line  is  hauled  in  and  the 
drag-line  paid  out.  The  scraper  may  be  dropped  into  position 
or  set  into  position  by  hand.  One  man  is  required  to  operate 
the  tractor  and  one  man  to  operate  the  scraper  with  some  ma- 
chines. Such  a  machine  can  operate  at  from  5  to  10  trips  a 
minute  depending  on  the  soil  and  Iqcal  conditions.  This  machine 
weighs  about  6000  Ib.  and  its  traveling  speed  is  about  2  miles  per 
hour. 

328.  Continuous  Bucket  Excavators. — The  continuous  bucket 
excavator  is  especially  adapted  for  the  excavation  of  trenches, 
where  the  width  does  not  exceed  6  ft.  and  the  depth  20  ft.,  and  the 
soil  is  not  too  hard  or  filled  with  obstructions.  Such  a  machine 
is  especially  serviceable  in  the  Middle  West,  where  the  surface 
is  fairly  level  and  the  soil  is  a  glacial  clay,  with  few  boulders  or 
roots. 

Recent  makes  of  continuous  bucket  excavators  are  equipped 
with  caterpillar  tractors  which  allow  the  use  of  the  heavy  machines 
on  soft,  wet  soils.  Other  important  improvements  are  the  re- 
duction in  the  number  and  simplification  of  parts  of  the  driving 
mechanism  and  the  increased  size  and  strength  of  the  bucket 
chain.  These  recent  developments  have  made  it  possible  to  use 
this  type  of  excavator  for  the  excavation  of  the  harder  soils  such 
as  indurated  gravel,  shale,  etc.  Figure  182  shows  a  trench 
excavator  digging  a  trench  48  in.  wide  and  15  ft.  6  in.  deep  in 
Chicago. 

A  trench  excavator  is  economical  in  the  construction  of  trenches 
over  24  in.  in  width  and  6  ft.  in  depth  and  one  machine  can 


446      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

perform  the  work  of  from  75  to  200  men.  For  an  analytical  com- 
parison of  trenching  by  machine  and  hand  labor  see  Art.  86, 
page  124. 


FIG.   182. — Continuous   bucket   excavator   digging   large   trench.     (Courtesy  of 

The  Bucyrus  Co.) 

329.  Use  of  Trench  Excavators  in  Illinois.1 — Two  Chicago 
Sewer  Excavators  were  used  in  Glencoe,  Illinois,  for  the  exca- 
vation of  trenches  for  a  sewer  system.  The  following  gives  a 
statement  of  the  character  of  the  work  done. 

15,500  lin.  ft.  of  8-in.  pipe  from  8-ft.  to  12-ft.  cut. 
5,600  lin.  ft.  of  10-in.  pipe  from  7-ft.  to  13-ft.  cut. 

250  lin.  ft.  of  12-in.  pipe  of  about  13-ft.  cut. 
1,000  lin.  ft.  of  15-in.  pipe  of  about  16-ft.  cut. 
4,700  lin.  ft.  of  18-in.  pipe  of  shallow  to  30-ft.  cut. 

The  deepest  cut  of  30  ft.  was  made  by  grading  down  the  street 
3  ft.  to  4  ft.  and  then  using  the  excavator  for  the  next  25 
feet.  The  remaining  foot  or  two  was  removed  by  hand  in  the 
bottom  of  the  trench  and  the  earth  thrown  into  the  boom  or 
back  upon  the  laid  pipe.  The  width  of  trench  cut  was  33  in., 

1  Abstracted  from  Engineering-Contracting,  April  5,  1911. 


MUNICIPAL  IMPROVEMENTS  447 

the  sides  were  cut  smooth  and  vertical  and  braced  with  vertical 
plank  and  jack  screws  placed  about  3  ft.  apart  in  the  deep 
trenches. 

The  soil  excavated  was  a  hard  clay.  The  upper  15  ft.  was 
a  brownish  clay  with  slight  traces  of  sand.  During  the  fall  and 
winter  months,  this  material  became  hard,  too  hard  to  be  dug  by 
hand  without  the  use  of  a  pick.  The  excavator  removed  stones 
up  to  1  ft.  in  size  when  wholly  within  the  trench.  When  partly 
outside  of  the  trench  or  when  stones  of  larger  size  were  encoun- 
tered, they  were  removed  by  blasting.  The  ground  was  frozen 
at  times  up  to  a  depth  of  from  14  in.  to  16  in.  but  did  not  delay 
the  work. 

The  work  was  carried  on  from  August  1,  1910,  to  January  1, 
1911.  The  following  table  gives  the  cost  per  day  for  the  exca- 
vation of  a  trench  25  ft.  deep,  the  laying  of  18-in.  pipe  and  back- 
filling. 

1  foreman $8.00 

Excavating  machine  including  operator 40.00 

1  engineer 4 . 00 

1  fireman 3.00 

5  trenchmen  @  $3 . 00 15 . 00 

20  laborers,  backfilling  @  $2.50 50.00 

2  teams  @  $6 . 00 12 . 00 

Coal 5.00 

Repairs  and  sundry  expenses 10 . 00 


Total $147.00 

Length  of  trench  excavated  per  day 80  ft. 

Cost  of  work $1 .837  per  lin.  ft. 

330.  Use  of  Trench  Excavator  in  Pennsylvania.1 — A  Paw- 
ling &  Harnischfeger  trenching  machine,  costing  $5650.00,  was 
used  from  May  1,  1917,  to  January  3,  1918,  in  the  excavation  of 
trenches  for  water  mains  in  Erie,  Pennsylvania. 

During  1917,  10,000  ft.  of  trench  for  6-in.  water  pipe  was  dug 
at  a  cost  of  $0.19  per  lineal  foot,  with  labor  at  $0.275  per  hour. 
The  material  was  clay  with  shale  at  the  bottom  of  the  trench. 

The  cost  of  excavation  was  based  on  the  following  unit  prices: 
operator,  $0.325  to  $0.45  per  hour;  helper,  $0.28  to  $0.35  per 
hour;  gasoline,  $0.243  to  $0.27  per  gallon;  oils,  $0.095  to  $0.115 
per  quart;  and  grease,  $0.05  to  $0.09  per  pound.  Eight  jobs  were 

1  Abstracted  from  Engineering  &  Contracting,  May  8,  1918. 


448      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

included  in  the  work,  the  trench  in  all  cases  having  a  width  of 

2  ft:  with  depths  varying  from  5  ft.  to  6  ft.  and  lengths  of  from 
230  feet  to  1000  feet.     The  cost  per  lineal  foot  of  trench  was  about 
$0.009  for  hard  clay,  $0.014  for  sand,  $0.12  for  clay  and  gravel, 
$0.036  for  hard  shale  and  $0.065  for  running  sand  and  gravel. 

A  summary  of  the  average  cost  of  excavation  for  jobs  Nos. 

3  to  8  inclusive  is  given  below. 

Cost  per  lineal 
foot  of  trench 

Operator,  15  hr.  @  $0.39 $0.0021 

Helper,  15  hr.  @  $0.315 0.0017 

Gasoline,  61  gal.  @  $0.251 0.0060 

Oils,  13  qt.  @  $0. 11 0.0005 

Grease,  5  Ib.  @  $0.065 0.0001 

Total  unit  cost  for  2727  lin.  ft $0.0104 

331.  Use  of  Trench  Excavator  in  Colorado. — A  Buckeye 
ditcher,  equipped  with  a  28-in.  X  7 J^-f t.  excavating-bucket  chain, 
was  used  in  the  excavation  of  the  earth  section  of  a  trench  for 
a  wooden  water-pipe  line  in  Greeley,  Colorado. 

The  trench  was  30  in.  wide  and  4  ft.  deep  and  about  35^  miles 
long.  The  material  for  8  miles  was  gravel,  occasionally  cemented 
together  and  containing  many  stones.  For  the  remainder  of 
the  distance,  the  material  was  a  tough  clay. 

The  following  data  gives  the  amount  of  excavation,  cost  of 
operation  of  ditcher  and  of  excavation. 

Total  length  of  ditch  excavated 188,080  ft. 

Total  amount  of  excavation 69,659  cu.  yd. 

Total  time  employed 300  10-hr,  days 

Maximum  excavation  in  gravel,  per  day 370  cu.  yd. 

Maximum  excavation  in  clay,  per  day 925  cu.  yd. 

Average  daily  excavation 232  cu.  yd. 

Average  daily  progress 627  lin.  ft. 

Labor: 

1  engineer  @  $5.00  per  day $1,500.00 

3  helpers  @  $3.00  per  day 2,700.00 


Total  labor  cost $4,200.00 

Fuel: 

300  tons  of  coal  @  $5.00 1,500.00 

Miscellaneous: 

Interest,  depreciation  and  repairs  @  $6.00 1,800. 00 


Total  operating  expense  for  300  days $7,500 . 00 


MUNICIPAL  IMPROVEMENTS  449 

The  cost  per  lineal  foot  of  trench  was  as  follows: 

Engineer $0.008 

Helpers 0.014 

Coal 0 . 008 

Plant..  0.010 


Total  cost  per  lineal  foot $0.040 


The  cost  per  cubic  yard  of  material  excavated  was  as  follows: 

Engineer $0.021 

Helpers 0.040 

Coal 0.021 

Plant..  0.025 


Total  cost  per  cubic  yard $0 . 107 

The  above  cost  data  do  not  include  general  expenses,  back- 
filling, moving  the  ditcher  to  and  from  the  job,  etc. 

The  original  cost  of  the  machine  was  $5200.00  and  its  working 
weight  about  17  tons.  The  plant  charges 'were  estimated  at 
about  30  per  cent,  per  annum  on  the  original  cost  and  assuming 
the  life  of  the  machine  as  5  years. 

332.  Trestle  Cable  Excavators. — The  trestle  cable  excavator  is 
especially  adapted  to  the  construction  of  large  trenches  where 
the  working  area  is  restricted  as  in  city  streets  and  alleys.     This 
type  of  machine  has  the  special  advantage  of  operating  system- 
atically over  the  trench  space  and  backfilling  being  carried  on  co- 
ordinately  with  the  excavation.     See  Art.  89,  page  130. 

For  ordinary  trench  construction,  the  simple,  6-bucket,  single- 
track  machine  is  efficient,  but  for  very  wide  trenches  and  in  hard 
material  the  double-track  machine  should  be  used. 

333.  Use  of  Trestle  Cable  Excavator  in   British   Columbia, 
Canada.1 — A  Carson  Trench  Excavator  was  used  in  1913,  in  the 
excavation  of  sewer  trenches  in  Vancouver,  British  Columbia, 
Canada.     The  machine  consisted  of  a  6-tub,  single-track  ex- 
cavator occupying  340  ft.  of  street  space  and  operating  simul- 
taneously in  two  48-ft.  lengths  of  trench. 

The  soft  material  required  bracing  which  comprised  sets  of  1 J£- 
in.  X  10-in.  sheetings  in  4-ft.  lengths  held  in  place  by  3-in.  X  12- 
in.  stringers  placed  midway  and  braced  by  4-in.  X  4-in.  transverse 

1  Abstracted  from  Engineering  Record,  January  2,  1915. 
29 


450     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

struts  on  8-ft.  centers.  This  bracing  was  carried  to  a  depth  of 
12  ft.  6  in.  below  which  the  trench  width  was  decreased  from  4 
feet  to  3  feet. 

The  operating  crew  consisted  of  17  men  as  follows:  12 
laborers  to  fill  buckets,  one  lockman,  one  engineer,  one  tim- 
berman,  one  toolman  and  a  straw  boss.  A  gang  of  four  men 
followed  the  excavation  and  laid  the  pipe.  The  following 
schedule  of  labor  wage  was  used  and  gives  the  unit  costs  per 
hour  based  on  an  8-hr,  working  day:  Laborers,  40  cents;  tim- 
berman,  42 J^  cents;  lockman,  42  J^  cents;  steam  engineer,  53^6 
cents;  toolman,  37 J^  cents;  straw  boss,  42J£  cents;  and  one-half 
superintendent's  time  at  62^  cents. 

The  following  statement  is  based  on  the  excavation  of  2700  ft. 
of  trench  for  a  2-ft.  trunk  line  sewer  in  a  20-ft.  lane.  The 
total  output  was  7700  cu.  yd.  and  the  average  daily  rate  of  ex- 
cavation was  45  cu.  yd.  for  8  hours.  The  maximum  depth  of 
trench  was  26  ft.,  the  top  width  being  4  ft.  and  maintained  to  a 
depth  of  12  ft.  6  in.  and  then  carried  on  down  with  a  width  of 
3  feet. 

Cost  per  cu.  yd. 

Labor  (including  superintendent  and  watchman) $1 . 63 

Hauling  machine  to  job  (total,  $88 .00) 0 . 0115 

Erecting  and  dismantling  machine  (total,  $96.00) 0.0125 

Maintenance  of  plant 0 . 0428 

Operating  expenses 0 . 1126 

Depreciation  of  plant1 0 .0400 

Interest  @  5  per  cent 0 .0200 


Total $1 .8694 

334.  Trestle  Track  Excavators. — The  trestle  track  excavator 
has  about  the  same  field  of  usefulness  as  the  trestle  cableway 
excavator.     This  type  of  machine  is  especially  adapted  to  use 
on  wide  trench  excavation  particularly  in  congested  city  streets 
where  part  of  the  street  must  be  kept  open  for  traffic.     See 
Art.  94,  page  135. 

On  wide  trenches,  the  use  of  a  double-track  machine  equipped 
with  two  cars  greatly  increases  the  efficiency  of  the  work. 

335.  Use  of  Trestle  Track  Excavator  in  Illinois.1— A  Potter 
1  Abstracted  from  Engineering-Contracting,  October  9,  1907. 

Trench  Machine  was  used  during  the  season  of  1907  in  the  ex- 
cavation of  a  large  sewer  trench  in  Chicago,  Illinois. 
1  Based  on  10-year  life  and  5  per  cent.  rate. 


MUNICIPAL  IMPROVEMENTS  451 

The  trench  had  a  width  of  21  ft.  and  an  average  depth  of  30.5 
feet.  The  materials  excavated  were,  a-  top  layer  of  black  soil, 
then  15  ft.  of  soft  blue  clay,  6  ft.  to  8  ft.  of  stiff  blue  clay,  1 
ft.  of  sandy  loam  and  finally  about  2  ft.  of  hard  blue  clay. 

The  trench  machine  followed  a  derrick  crane  and  excavated  the 
last  12  ft.  to  14  ft.  in  depth.  Six  buckets  with  a  capacity  of  J^ 
cu.  yd.  each  were  used  and  so  arranged  that  four  were  in  the 
trench  being  filled  while  the  remaining  two  were  being  carried 
away  on  the  carriage  and  dumped. 

The  following  table  gives  the  cost  of  excavation  on  the  basis 
of  an  8-hr,  working  day. 

Labor: 

1  engineer $6.00 

1  fireman 2 . 50 

1  carriage  operator 3 . 25 

1  carriage  helper 2 . 50 

20  laborers  in  trench,  @  $2 . 75 55 . 00 

1  laborer  on  dump 2 . 75 

1  foreman . .  3 . 50 


Total  labor  cost $75.50 

Fuel: 

Yz  ton  coal®  $5. 00 $2.50 

Rent  of  machine  @  $125 . 00  per  month $4 . 80 

Total $82.80 

Average  daily  excavation 175  cu.  yd. 

Average  cost  of  excavation,  $82.80  -J-  175  =  $0.47  per  cu.  yd, 

336.  Tower  Cableway  Excavators. — The  tower  cableway  can 
be  successfully  utilized  in  trench  excavation  for  work  of  large 
extent,  where  the  width  is  over  6  ft.  and  depth  greater  than  15  feet. 
The  machine  is  largely  concentrated  at  the  ends  where  the  cable- 
way  is  supported  by  light  towers.     The  free  space  under  the  ma- 
chine allows  the  placing  of  the  excavated  material  and  furnished 
protection  from  injury  when  blasting. 

The  cableway  should  be  limited  to  a  span  of  about  300  ft.  in 
order  to  provide  for  the  control  of  the  buckets  in  hoisting  and 
conveying.  Even  with  short  spans  great  care  must  be  taken  in 
operating  the  machine  to  prevent  the  displacement  of  the  tim- 
bering and  injury  to  the  workmen. 

337.  Use  of  Cableway  Excavator  in  Washington,  D.  C.— The 
following  report  is  given  to  show  the  use  of  one  of  these  cable- 


452     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

ways,  for  the  excavation  of  a  sewer  trench  in  Washington,  D.  C., 
about  18  years  ago  (1895). 

GENERAL  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  WORK 

The  Easby's  Point  Sewer  for  about  1100  ft.  from  the  outlet  is  D- 
shaped,  11  ft.  3  in.  in  width  and  11  ft.  3  in.  in  height,  and  rests  on  a  pile 
foundation.  This  is  followed  by  a  circular  section  1 1  ft.  3  in.  in  diameter 
for  a  distance  of  about  2400  ft.,  then  about  1000  ft.  of  10  ft.  6  in.,  then 
about  1600  ft.  of  9  feet  6  inches. 

The  first  1200  ft.  of  11  ft.  3  in.  circular  is  in  a  cut  varying  from  12  ft. 
to  40  ft.  in  depth,  with  about  10  ft.  of  clay  and  rotten  rock  on  top  of 
solid  rock.  This  rock,  while  very  hard,  is  badly  broken  up  by  seams 
running  in  every  direction  and  at  all  angles  with  the  horizon. 

In  spite  of  the  most  careful  blasting  and  heavy  bracing,  the  line  of 
fracture  would  follow  these  seams  to  the  surface,  bringing  in  large  masses 
outside  the  regular  width  of  excavation.  About  1000  lin.  ft.  of  this 
work  were  done  by  steam  derricks,  and  in  places  the  slides  were  so  exten- 
sive that  the  top  width  was  more  than  50  feet.  The  normal  width  of 
the  trench  was  18  feet. 

As  it  was  determined  to  increase  the  plant,  a  study  of  the  different 
forms  of  trench  machines  was  made,  and  the  trench  machines  spanning 
the  ditch  were  rejected  for  the  following  reasons: 

1.  Experience  had  shown  that  it  would  not  be  safe  to  do  the  heavy 
blasting  required  under  them. 

2.  On  account  of  the  width  of  the  trench,  18  ft.,  heavy  timbering 
would  be  required  to  carry  the  machine,  and  in  event  of  a  slide  the 
machine  would  be  almost  certain  to  go  into  the  ditch. 

3.  As  about  3000  ft.  of  the  remaining  distance  would  be  made  through 
ground  where  the  banks  could  not  be  depended  upon,  it  was  not  thought 
advisable  to  put  any  extra  weight  upon  them  or  to  subject  them  to  the 
vibrations  which  would  be  occasioned  by  a  machine  spanning  the  trench. 

As  a  cableway  was  not  open  to  any  of  these  objections,  an  order  was 
given  for  one  of  the  following: 

GENERAL  DIMENSIONS 

Length  between  end  frames 300  ft. 

Total  length  between  anchorages 430  ft. 

Height  of  frames » . .     32  ft. 

Diameter  of  main  cable  (steel) IK  in. 

CYLINDER  DIMENSIONS 

Engine,  Lidgerwood 8>^  in.  X  10  in. 

Speed  of  hoisting 250  ft.  per  min. 

Speed  of  conveying 400  ft.  per  min.  _^ 

Lifting  capacity 5000  Ib. 

Size  of  buckets ,','»   I  cu.  yd. 


I 

MUNICIPAL  IMPROVEMENTS  453 

CHARACTER  AND  AMOUNT  OF  WORK 

Width  of  trench 18  ft. 

Depth  of  lower  shelf  of  trench  on  which  cableway  was 

started 15  ft. 

Distance  of  carriage 150  ft. 

Number  of  trips  per  hour 35 

Number  of  hours  per  day 8 

Number  of  cubic  yards  excavated  per  day 280 

The  material  was  cemented  gravel  and  rotten  rock  which  could  have  been 
removed  cheaper  by  blasting  than  by  picking. 

OPERATING  EXPENSES  PER  DAY 

Engineer $2.00 

Fireman 1 .25 

Signal  man 1 . 00 

Two  dumpers  @  $1.00 2.00 

Coal,  oil  and  waste 1 . 50 

Interest  and  maintenance  (estimated) 7 .00 


Total $14.75 

Cost  of  picking  and  shoveling  into  tubs,  30  men  at  $1 . 00  30 . 00 


Grand  total $44. 75 

Cost  of  picking,  shoveling  into  tubs,  hoisting  from  trench  15  ft.  deep, 
conveying  150  ft.  and  dumping  into  wagons,  16  cents  per  cubic  yard. 

Cost  for  hoisting,  conveying  and  dumping,  5^fo  cents  per  cubic  yard. 

At  the  same  time  the  excavating  was  going  on,  bracing  and  sheathing 
was  being  done,  so  that  this  represents  what  can  be  done  in  the  regular 
order  of  working  and  was  not  a  spurt  to  see  what  the  machine  could 
do  when  pressed.  In  fact,  none  of  the  men  knew  that  the  machine 
was  being  timed. 

The  conditions  under  which  the  machine  was  working  were  not  favor- 
able for  making  a  record,  as  the  bracing  in  the  trench  was  too  close 
together  for  the  size  of  tub  used.  The  engineer  was  a  new  man  at  the 
machine,  although  used  to  running  a  hoisting  engine.  Dumping  into 
wagons  consumed  much  more  time  than  would  have  been  required  to 
dump  on  the  work. 

I  think  300  cu.  yd.  can  easily  be  handled  in  a  day  of  8  hr.  in  fairly 
good  material  in  regular  work,  and  no  doubt  under  favorable  circum- 
stances the  machine  could  be  pushed  much  beyond  this  limit  for  a  short 
time. 

The  machine  has  been  at  work  about  3  weeks,  but  owing  to  the 
depth  of  the  trench,  30  ft.  to  40  ft.,  and  the  quantity  of  rock  to  be 


454     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

removed,  it  has  not  been  moved.  I  am  therefore  unable  to  say  how  long 
this  would  take,  but  think  the  machine  could  be  taken  down,  moved,  and 
set  up  in  a  day  or  less. 

Since  the  engine  was  fairly  in  working  order  the  machine  has  not  been 
stopped  10  min.  for  repairs  or  adjustment. 

(Signed)     FRANK  P.  DAVIS, 
Civil  Engineer. 

B — TILE-TRENCH  EXCAVATION 

338.  General. — Until  about  20  years  ago,  trench  excavation 
for  drain  tile  was  largely  made  by  hand.  However,  in  recent 
years  with  the  rapid  development  of  agricultural  drainage,  in 


FIG.  183. — Tile- trench  excavator  with  templet  attachment. 

the  Middle  West  and  South,  has  come  the  general  use  of 
machinery  for  tile-trench  excavation  and  tile  laying.  In  wet 
and  soft  soils  machines  equipped  with  caterpillar  tractors  must 
be  used  to  distribute  the  weight  of  the  machine  over  a  large 
bearing  area. 

One  make  of  tile-trench  machine  uses  a  box  or  templet  which 
follows  the  machine  and  automatically  lays  the  tile.  See  Fig. 
183.  This  is  a  useful  device  which  requires  careful  machine  op- 
eration and  adjustment  of  the  templet  to  secure  satisfactory 
results.  Hand  laid  tile  is  generally  more  accurate  as  to  alinement 
and  fitting  of  joints  than  that  laid  by  machine. 


MUNICIPAL  IMPROVEMENTS  455 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  use  a  longitudinal  conveyor, 
which  receives  the  excavated  material  from  the  transverse  car- 
rier and  transports  it  to  the  rear  of  the  work  and  dumps  it  over 
the  newly  laid  tile.  This  device  has  not  proved  successful, 
as  there  is  not  sufficient  time  in  which  to  lay  the  tile  before  the 
deposition  of  the  excavated  material. 

The  two  general  types  of  tile  drain  excavators  are  the  continu- 
ous bucket  or  ladder  machine  and  the  wheel  machine.  The  lat- 
ter type  has  the  more  rigid  excavating  equipment  and  does  away 
with  the  large  number  of  parts  and  opportunities  for  breakage 
of  the  bucket  chains.  However,  the  wheel  machine  is  generally 
more  limited  as  to  its  field  of  work  than  the  chain  machine 
with  adjustable  frame  and  removable  buckets. 

339.  Use  of  Tile -trench  Excavator  in  Ohio. — During  the  year 
1910,  a  Buckeye  ditcher  equipped  with  a  gasoline  engine  and  ca- 
pable of  digging  a  trench  14J^j  in.  wide  X  4J£  ft.  deep  has  been 
used  near  New  London,  Ohio.  About  12  miles  of  trench  were 
dug,  with  an  average  depth  of  2J/£  feet.  The  soil  excavated  was 
loam  and  clay,  which  was  rather  hard  during  the  dry  season 
and  sticky  when  wet.  The  excavator  was  equipped  with  apron 
or  caterpillar  tractions  and  passed  through  several  swamps. 
The  following  table  gives  the  average  cost  of  excavation  for  the 
season : 

Cost  per  rod 

Operator $0.03 

Gasoline  @  13^  per  gallon 0 . 018 

Repairs 0.024 

Oil  and  grease 0 . 001 


Total  cost  per  rod  excavated $0.073 

One  man  was  found  sufficient  to  operate  the  machine  satis- 
factorily. The  average  cost  of  excavation  of  tile  trenches  by 
hand  in  the  same  locality  the  previous  season  was  35  cents  per 
rod. 

Near  Fremont,  Ohio,  the  following  record  was  kept  of  the  use 
of  a  Buckeye  ditcher  during  an  11-hr,  working  day  in  Septem- 
ber, 1910.  The  excavator  was  a  steam-power  machine  with  a 
capacity  of  llj^  in.  wide  X  4J^  ft.  deep.  The  total  excavation 
made  was  270  rods  of  trench  with  an  average  depth  of  2  ft. 
4  inches. 


456      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

The  following  table  gives  the  cost  of  the  work  for  the  11-hr, 
day: 

Operator $2 . 50 

Fireman 1 . 50 

Cylinder  oil 0 . 23 

Machine  oil..  0.10 


Total  cost  of  excavation  ...................   $4  .  33 

Fuel  and  water  were  supplied  by  the  land  owner. 

340.  Use  of  Tile-trench  Excavator  in  Indiana.  —  A  Pawling  & 
Harnischfeger  Tile-trench  excavator  was  used  in  1915,  for  the 
construction  of  tile  drain  trenches  in  gumbo  soil.  The  trenches 
were  llj^  in.  wide  and  from  36  in.  to  44  in.  in  depth. 

The  following  table  gives  a  statement  of  the  performance  of 
the  machine  on  several  divisions  of  the  job. 


TABLE  XXIX.  —  COST  OF  TILE-TRENCH  EXCAVATION 


Division  of  work 


A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

Time  operated,  hours.  .  .  .  

10H 
3 

7H 

12 
$1.68 
3 
$6.50 
$8.18 
42  in. 
1650 
$0.0050 
$0.0398 

11 
3 

8 
13 
$1.65 
3 
$6.50 
$8.35 
42  in. 
1952 
$0.0043 
$0.0345 

11 
2 
9 
15 
$2.17 
3 
$6.50 
$8.67 
42  in. 
2887 
$0.0030 
$0.0241 

11 
2 
9 
15 
$2.17 
3 
$6.50 
$8.67 
44  in. 
2310 
$0.0037 
$0.0289 

11 
3 

8 
13 
$1.85 
3 
$6.50 
$8.35  . 
42  in. 
2838 
$0.0029 
$0.0237 

12 
2 
10 
20 
$2.90 
4 
$8.00 
$10.90 
36  in. 
5032 
$0.0021 
$0.0204 

Time  delayed  hours  * 

Net  operating  time,  hours  

Gasoline,    gal    @llH>f 

Cost  of  fuel  and  lubricating  oil  
Number  of  laborers 

Labor  cost  per  day     .  .  . 

Total  cost  per  day   

Trench,  depth  

Trench,  length  in  ft  
Cost  per  lin.  ft  
Cost  per  cu   yd 

*  Including  noon  period  1  hr.  or  30  minutes. 

341.  Use  of  Tile-trench  Excavator  in  Wisconsin.1 — The  fol- 
lowing statement  gives  an  analytical  conception  of  the  cost  of 
operation  of  a  drainage  excavator  with  a  four-cylinder  motor 
of  20  h.p.  and  700  r.p.m.  The  trenches  were  15  in.  wide  and 
varied  in  depth  from  30  in.  to  36  inches.  The  material  excavated 
was  gumbo,  which  was  in  a  wet,  sticky  condition  during  the 
work. 

1  From  statement  furnished  by  Pawling  &  Harnischfeger  Company,  Mil- 
waukee, Wis. 


MUNICIPAL  IMPROVEMENTS 


457 


| 

a 

oooooooooo 
oddddooodo 

1 

U  fc^ 

oooooooooo 

gooooooooo 

"3 
a 

"Sfi 

VATOR 

3 
0 

o.S 

5-e 

9 

oooooooooo 
cocococoeocccocococo 

< 
O 

X 
W 

n 

"S!2:1|H 

s 

H 

i 

sssssssssg 

I 

^ 

° 

•» 

i 

H 

3 

|of 

cocoeooocococowoofc 

V 

S 
S 

h 
O 

ll 

S  So  S  S  S  S  S  §  S  8 

j3 

1 

H  ° 

•» 

1 

O 

o 
fc 

PS 

Lubricating 
oil  cost 

oooooooooo 

per  day  foi 

w 

04 

? 

K 

& 

§ 

iiiiiiiiis 

dddddddddd 

§ 

£j 

T3 
C 
03 

g 

X 
X 

H 

3 

9 

Gasoline 
in  gallons 

OOCO1OW5OOO—  iO-<O 

si 

1 

^B 

owoooooooo 

S« 

^||-° 

b-THO5OSOOOOOOOO 

!] 

8 

ii 

0    W5   «0   »0 

H 

Bua 

Qc 

MMo^o^O-00 

x) 

.2 

la. 

oooooooooo 
odddddddddd 

| 

o"5 

M 

-- 

II 

-^,-.-K.«a 

1 

458     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

H.  FOUNDATION  AND  BASEMENT  EXCAVATION 

342.  General. — Until  recently,  basement  excavation  of  build- 
ings and  other  foundation  work  was  generally  done  by  hand  labor. 
With  the  development  of  building  construction  to  high  office 
buildings  and  large  industrial  plants,  the  great  magnitude  of 
excavation  operations   has  occasioned  the   use  of  systematic 
methods  and  of  machinery* 

The  type  of  excavator  to  use  in  any  case  depends  largely  upon 
the  depth  and  area  of  excavation,  the  character  and  condition 
of  the  soil,  the  length  of  haul,  the  machinery  available,  the  cost 
and  availability  of  labor,  fuel,  etc.,  etc.  When  the  magnitude 
of  the  job  is  50,000  cu.  yd.  or  over,  some  form  of  power  excavator 
can  generally  be  economically  employed.  For  shallow  excava- 
tion in  light  soft  soils,  the  four-wheel  scraper  can  be  efficiently 
used,  but  for  deeper  cuts  (usually  over  3  ft.)  the  revolving  shovel 
should  be  used.  Cableways  are  especially  useful  in  deep  excava- 
tion for  the  raising  and  transporting  of  skips  or  buckets  which 
are  loaded  by  hand  or  by  a  power  excavator.  For  shallow  ex- 
cavation of  great  extent  and  where  the  material  is  to  be  wasted 
along  the  side,  a  tower  cableway  may  prove  to  be  the  most  effi- 
cient machine.  The  author,  in  connection  with  a  large  indus- 
trial project  recently,  planned  for  the  use  of  a  loading  platform 
with  a  tower  cableway  excavator.  The  scraper  bucket  would  be 
drawn  up  over  an  inclined  "run"  and  discharge  through  an  open 
trap  into  dump  wagons  below.  This  method  was  not  tried  out, 
as  four-wheel  scrapers  were  available  and  used  instead  of  the 
tower  cableway,  but  the  author  believes  that  it  could  be  econom- 
ically used. 

343.  Scrapers. — The  scraper  is   efficient    in    the    removal    of 
earth  where  the  amount  of  material  is  small,  the  depth  of  cut 
light  and  the  haul  not  too  great.     The  slip  or  drag  scraper  can 
often  be  used  satisfactorily  for  the  stripping  of  the  upper  layers 
of  soil  and  for  hauls  under  300  feet.     The  four-wheel  scraper  is 
the  most  efficient  machine  for  hauls  over  300  ft.  and  for  all 
classes  of  earth.     Where  the  material  is  dense  and  stiff,  a  traction 
engine  shold  be  employed  for  loading  the  scrapers. 

344.  Use  of  Wheel  Scrapers  in  Connecticut. — Wheel  scrapers 
and  hand  excavation  were  used  in  a  building  being  constructed 
for  the  Stanley  works,  of  New  Britain,  Conn.     The  building  is 
rectangular  in  form,  63  ft.  wide  and  203  ft.  long.     The  general 


MUNICIPAL  IMPROVEMENTS  459 

plan  is  shown  in  Fig.  184.  The  plans  call  for  a  seven-story  build- 
ing, of  the  mushroom  system  of  reinforced-concrete  construction, 
without  a  basement. 

The  building  site  is  a  plot  of  ground  surrounded  by  one-story 
frame  structures,  and  until  recently  used  for  the  storage  of  great 
piles  of  thin  sheet  steel.  This  plot  was  formerly  a  peat  bog, 
which  was  filled  in  with  ashes,  cinders  and  slag  from  the  power 
plant.  Six  test  pits  were  dug  to  a  depth  of  about  6  ft.  below 
the  general  ground  level,  which  was  nearly  that  of  the  finished 
basement  subgrade.  The  ashes  and  cinders  made  a  top  fill  of 
about  2J£  ft.  in  depth.  Underlying  this  fill  was  about  1  ft.  of 
peat,  then  about  3  ft.  of  red  clay  and  then  the  foundation  material 
of  a  dense  shaly  gravel.  In  places  a  large  number  of  glacial  boul- 
ders ranging  in  size  from  1  ft.  to  4  ft.  were  found  distributed 
through  the  gravel.  At  an  average  depth  of  about  7  ft.  below 
the  subgrade  elevation,  water  was  encountered,  and  in  some 
pits  an  inflow  in  the  form  of  a  steady,  continuous  stream  took 
place. 

The  problem  was  peculiar  and  difficult  in  this  case,  since  there 
was  not  to  be  a  basement  and  the  net  excavation  was  the  re- 
moval of  sufficient  material  for  the  building  of  18  interior  foot- 
ings 15  ft.  square  and  6  ft.  9  in.  below  subgrade,  22  exterior 
footings  12  ft.  square,  and  four  corner  footings  10  ft.  square 
and  7  ft.  3  in.  below  subgrade.  On  account  of  elevator  pits 
and  a  conduit  tunnel  terminal,  two  interior  column  footings 
were  carried  to  a  depth  of  10  ft.  6  in.  and  one  interior  and  two 
exterior  footings  to  a  depth  of  8  ft.  6  in.  below  subgrade.  Allow- 
ing for  the  side  walls,  column  stubs,  and  tunnel,  the  total  gross 
excavation  required  was  about  2500  cu.  yd.,  with  a  backfill  to 
subgrade  elevation  of  about  1500  cubic  yards.  It  is,  therefore, 
evident  that  1000  cu.  yd.  of  material  was  to  be  permanently  re- 
moved and  wasted.  After  a  preliminary  study  of  the  conditions  it 
was  decided  to  scrape  off  from  the  surface  with  two-wheel  scrapers 
the  1000  cu.  yd.  of  superfluous  material,  and  then  excavate  the 
footing  pits  to  grade  with  pick  and  shovel. 

The  cinder  fill  was  found  to  be  very  dense  and  compact,  and  a 
two-horse  plow  was  necessary  to  loosen  up  this  material  for  the 
scrapers.  Four,  five  and  six  two-wheel  scrapers  were  used  on 
consecutive  days  to  remove  this  surface  material  from  the 
building  site  to  the  dump,  which  was  located  about  300  ft.  from 
the  south  end  of  the  site.  Hence  the  average  length  of  haul 


460     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

was  about  400  feet.  Each  scraper  was  operated  by  two  horses 
and  a  driver,  and  no  snatch  team  was  used  for  loading,  as  the 
plowing  up  of  the  material  rendered  it  loose  enough  to  be  loaded 
easily  into  the  scrapers  by  the  regular  team  alone.  The  net 
capacity  of  each  scraper  was  ^  cubic  yard.  The  average  time 
for  the  round  trip  for  the  average  haul  was  4J^  minutes.  Two 
men  were  used  to  load  the  scrapers  and  two  to  dump  and  spread 
the  material.  A  foreman  supervised  the  loading,  and  a  clerk 
at  the  dump  kept  a  time  record  and  superintended  the  dumping. 
Following  is  a  schedule  of  the  labor  cost  of  the  wheel-scraper 
work  per  9-hr,  day: 

1  foreman  a  $6 . 00  per  day $6 . 00 

4  laborers  at  $0 . 25  per  hour 9 . 00 

1  clerk  at  $10.00  per  week 1.67 

6  teams  at  $0 . 60  per  hour 32 . 40 


Total $49.07 

Six  scrapers  gave  the  most  efficient  results  and  required  the  con- 
stant use  of  the  plow  for  loosening.  The  average  cost  of  exca- 
vation under  these  conditions  was  25  cents  per  cubic  yard.  The 
local  teamsters  were  inexperienced  in  wheel-scraper  work,  and 
strongly  protested  against  the  use  of  these  machines.  The  writer 
believes  that  the  use  of  the  1-yd.  four-wheel  scraper  would  have 
eliminated  this  discontent  and  inefficiency,  and  reduced  the  ex- 
cavation cost  to  about  15  cents  per  cubic  yard.  This  superficial 
excavation  was  made  with  an  average  cut  of  1  ft.  at  the  south 
and  3  ft.  at  the  north  end. 

BULKHEADS  BETWEEN  FOOTINGS 

If  the  hand-excavated  material  from  the  footing  pits  was  shov- 
eled into  wagons,  hauled  away,  dumped  and  then  hauled  again 
for  the  backfill,  it  was  evident  from  the  experience  gained  in  dig- 
ging the  test  pits  that  the  cost  would  be  excessive.  Hence  the 
author  devised  the  scheme  of  building  wooden  bulkheads  between 
the  footings.  These  bulkheads  were  made  about  the  length  of 
the  side  of  each  footing  and  were  placed  only  on  the  transverse 
spaces  between  footings.  This  arrangement  left  open  two  con- 
tinuous -aisles  or  runways  longitudinally,  between  the  exterior 
and  the  interior  lines  of  footing  pits.  See  Fig.  184. 


MUNICIPAL  IMPROVEMENTS 


461 


462     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

Each  bulkhead  was  composed  of  two  parallel  walls  of  2-in. 
X  12-in.  planks,  placed  with  the  12-in.  face  vertical,  and  held  in 
position  by  three  bents  composed  of  two  4-in.  X  4-in.  posts  and 
cross-bracing  at  top  and  bottom.  These  bents  were  erected  first 
and  the  planks  added  as  the  excavated  material  from  the  pits 
was  piled  up.  Figure  185  shows  the  bulkheads  during  the  early 
part  of  the  excavation  of  the  pits  for  the  footings.  The  excavated 
material  was  shoveled  directly  into  the  bulkheads  until  they 
reached  a  height  of  about  4  feet.  Then  it  became  necessary  to 
shovel  the  material  to  the  surface  at  the  open  sides  and  reshovel 


FIG.  185. — View  of  bulkhead  method   of  footing  pit  excavation.     (Photo  by 

Author.) 

into  the  bulkheads.  The  latter  were  often  carried  to  a  height 
of  8  or  9  ft.,  and  were  cross-braced  with  4-in.  X  4-in.  struts  across 
the  pits.  After  nearly  a  week  of  continued  heavy  rains  it  be- 
came necessary  to  sheath  and  brace  the  loaded  sides  of  the  pits, 
as  the  clay  became  saturated  with  water  and  began  to  slide  and 
cave  in.  This  rainy  season  necessitated  a  great  deal  of  extra 
pumping,  although  the  inflow  of  underground  water  ordinarily 
began  about  6  ft.  below  the  subgrade  elevation.  The  excava- 
tion of  the  four  deep  pits  at  the  north  end  of  the  site  required  the 
removal  of  a  large  number  of  big  boulders  and  necessitated  al- 
most constant  pumping  to  remove  the  inflow  of  subsurface  water. 
One  gasoline  power  diaphragm  pump  and  four  hand  pumps  were 
used. 


MUNICIPAL  IMPROVEMENTS  463 

METHOD  OP  PROCEDURE 

The  excavation  for  the  two  end  and  the  following  eight  in- 
terior footing  pits  was  started  first  and  carried  down  within 
about  1  ft.  of  grade  during  the  erection  of  the  pouring  tower  and 
mixer  plant.  As  soon  as  the  pouring  of  the  concrete  began, 
the  pits  were  carried  down  to  grade  consecutively,  so  that  the 
concreting  closely  followed  the  excavation  and  both  operations 
became  continuous. 

The  narrow-gage  track  for  the  side-dump  cradle  concrete  cars 
was  laid  along  the  two  aisles  or  lanes  between  the  adjacent 
rows  of  interior  and  exterior  footing  pits.  A  cross  track  was  also 
run  directly  from  the  tower,  connecting  the  two  longitudinal 
lines  of  track.  The  latter  were  laid  on  a  grade  of  about  0.5  per 
cent,  from  the  south  to  the  north  end  of  the  excavation.  As  soon 
as  the  north  footings  were  completed,  the  surplus  material  from 
the  southerly  pits  was  loaded  into  concrete  cars,  moved  down  to 
the  completed  work  and  dumped  into  the  pits  for  backfill. 

The  excavation  of  the  exterior  footing  pits,  at  the  north  end  of 
the  site,  was  begun  as  the  pouring  of  the  adjacent  interior  foot- 
ings neared  completion.  The  excavated  material  from  the  upper 
sections  of  these  side  pits  was  shoveled  directly  into  the  center 
pits  of  completed  footings.  All  backfill  was  thoroughly  tamped 
in  layers  with  a  heavy  iron  hand  tamper. 

LOOSENING  THE  MATERIAL 

Before  the  excavation  of  the  footing  pits  in  the  south  half 
of  the  site  was  started,  blasting  was  resorted  to  for  the  purpose 
of  loosening  the  soil  and  thus  reducing  the  amount  of  picking 
necessary.  Each  pit  was  blasted  separately  and  the  operation 
was  as  follows : 

Two  laborers,  equipped  with  a  conical-pointed  iron  bar  1  J£  in. 
in  diameter  and  a  sledge,  drove  two  holes  about  4  ft.  deep  and 
from  6  ft.  to  8  ft.  on  centers  on  the  axis  of  each  pit.  In  each 
hole  the  blaster  placed  first  a  half-cartridge  of  40  per  cent, 
dynamite,  which  he  had  previously  slitted  with  a  knife,  and  then 
another  half-cartridge  containing  the  exploder.  From  the  ex- 
ploder lead  wires  extended  up  out  of  the  hole  to  the  two  main 
wires  of  the  firing  machine.  A  small  amount  of  earth  was 
tamped  upon  the  top  of  each  charge  with  a  6-ft.  wooden  rod. 
Each  blast  was  protected  with  a  heavy  tarpaulin  and  several 


464      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

heavy  timbers.  The  surface  of  the  ground  was  but  slightly 
heaved  by  the  blast,  but  had  the  appearance  of  having  been 
thoroughly  churned.  A  crowbar  was  easily  thrust  down  to  its 
full  length  into  the  loosened  soil. 

The  following  is  an  estimate  of  the  cost  of  loosening  up  about 
500  cu.  yd.  of  soil  in  20  pits  during  a  working  period  of  5 
hours : 

Materials: 

20  Ib.  40  per  cent,  dynamite  @  17ff $3 . 40 

40  exploders  @  $4.50  per  100 1.80 


Total $5 . 20 

Labor: 

1  blaster1  @  $5 . 00  per  day $3 . 35 

2  laborers  @  20?f  per  hour 2 . 40 


Total $5 . 75 

Grand  total $10.95 

Cost  of  loosening  1  cu.  yd.,  $10.95  •*•  500  =  $0.0219 

The  bulkheads  of  the  northerly  footings  were  taken  down  and 
moved  to  the  south  end  of  the  site  and  erected  for  the  storing 
of  the  material  being  excavated  from  the  pits  at  that  point. 
The  spoil  banks  left  after  the  removal  of  the  bulkheads  were 
spread  uniformly  over  the  spaces  between  the  column  stubs, 
and  the  whole  area  was  brought  up  to  the  subgrade  or  elevation 
of  the  concrete  first  floor. 

COST 

The  average  unit  cost  of  excavation  was  $0.278  for  the  wheel 
scrapers,  $0.407  for  the  drag  scrapers,  about  $0.40  for  hand 
excavation  in  dry  soil  and  $0.78  for  hand  excavation  in  wet  soil 
and  rock. 

345.  Power  Shovels. — The  most  universally  used  and  efficient 
form  of  excavator  for  basement  and  foundation  work  of  con- 
siderable magnitude  is  the  power  shovel.  For  jobs  of  100,000 
cu.  yd.  and  over  and  where  hard-pan  and  rock  are  to  be  handled, 
the  large,  fixed-platform  type  of  shovel  should  be  used.  But  for 
the  lighter,  softer  materials,  the  revolving  shovel  is  the  most 
serviceable  on  account  of  its  ease  and  rapidity  of  operation, 

* 

1  The  blaster  was  an  expert  representative  of  a  well-known  power  manu- 
facturer and  furnished  the  firing  machine,  wires,  drill  rod  and  tamp  rod. 


MUNICIPAL  IMPROVEMENTS 


465 


portableness  and  control.  The  efficiency  of  steam-shovel  opera- 
tion-in  this  class  of  work  depends  to  a  great  extent  upon  the  hand- 
ling of  the  shovel  and  the  proper  supply  of  wagons  so  as  to  keep 
the  machine  operating  during  at  least  60  per  cent,  of  the  working 
time.  The  machine  should  be  moved  or  routed  over  the  area  to 
be  excavated  so  as  to  eliminate  lost  time  and  motion,  and  as  far 
as  possible,  to  work  in  one  continuous  path. 


FIG.   186. — Path  of  steam  shovel. 

346.  Use  of  Steam  Shovel  in  Massachusetts. — A  steam  shovel 
was  used  in  excavating  for  a  modern  building,  which  was  con- 
structed for  the  Dennison  Manufacturing  Company,  of  South 
Framingham,  Mass.  The  building  is  rectangular  in  form,  70 
ft.  X  159  ft.  5  in.,  with  two  projecting  stair  towers  and  a  toilet 
tower.  The  general  plan  of  the  building  is  shown  in  Fig.  186. 
There  is  a  basement  and  four  stories,  and  the  girderless  floor 
or  mushroom  system  of  reinforced-concrete  construction  was 
used  throughout. 

30 


466     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

The  west  side  of  the  building  is  nearly  parallel  to  a  public 
thoroughfare  which  winds  around  the  south  side,  and  this  pro- 
vides three  points  of  access  to  the  site.  As  the  gate  on  the  south 
side  was  used  for  the  large  traffic  of  the  Dennison  Manufacturing 
Company,  however,  it  was  not  deemed  advisable  to  use  this  gate 
in  the  excavation  work  for  the  passage  of  teams. 

The  soil  excavated  was  a  fine,  clean,  siliceous  sand,  in  beds 
from  3  ft.  to  7  ft.  in  depth,  and  separated  by  strata  of  yellow  clay, 
of  a  depth  of  1  ft.  or  2  feet.  The  excavation  was  carried  down  to 
a  gravel  subsoil,  upon  which  the  footings  were  placed.  The 
depth  of  excavation  varied  from  8.2  ft.  to  10.5  feet. 

The  excavated  material  was  used  to  fill  up  two  low,  swampy 
tracts  of  land  which  were  located  about  }£  mile  from  the  site  of 
the  building.  This  property  belonged  to  the  Dennison  Manu- 
facturing Company,  and  was  being  graded  up  for  the  building 
of  houses  for  the  company's  employees. 

METHOD  OF  EXCAVATION 

A  new  Thew  Automatic  revolving  steam  shovel,  type  0, 
equipped  with  a  %-yd.  dipper,  was  used  for  the  bulk  of  the  ex- 
cavation. The  manufacturers  furnished  an  expert  engineer 
who  set  up  and  operated  the  machine  for  several  days,  during 
which  time  he  broke  in  a  " green  hand"  as  the  runner.  The 
latter  operated  the  shovel  without  aid  or  supervision  during  the 
last  10  days  of  the  work. 

The  shovel  began  operations  near  the  southwest  corner  of  the 
building  plot,  and  excavated  a  cut  about  15  ft.  wide  on  a  de- 
scending grade  of  about  10  per  cent.  As  the  shovel  approached 
the  northeast  corner  of  the  plot  it  reached  the  finished  grade, 
which  was  about  10.5  ft.  below  the  original  ground  surface  at 
this  point. 

PATH  OF  SHOVEL 

The  path  of  the  shovel  is  shown  by  the  dash  line  in  Fig.  193. 
The  east  side  of  the  excavation  was  completed  first,  as  it  was 
desirable  to  construct  the  footings  and  erect  the  basement  column 
forms  along  this  side,  adjacent  to  the  mixer  plant  and  pouring 
tower,  as  early  as  possible.  While  the  shovel  was  excavating 
in  a  southerly  direction  along  the  east  side,  a  slip  scraper  was 
used  to  cut  an  inclined  road  from  the  north  gate  on  Grant  Street, 
along  the  north  side  of  the  plot,  and  curving  and  descending  on  a 


MUNICIPAL  IMPROVEMENTS  467 

grade  of  about  6  per  cent,  to  the  bottom  of  the  excavation  near 
the  north  end  of  the  toilet  tower.  After  the  shovel  had  started 
on  its  second  trip  along  the  plot,  the  wagons  came  in  at  the 
south  gate  on  Grant  Street,  passed  down  the  incline  along  the 
south  side  of  the  plot,  around  the  east  side  of  the  shovel,  where 
they  loaded  and  passed  up  the  north  incline  and  out  the  north 
gate  on  Grant  Street,  to  the  dump. 

SUPPORT  FOR  SHOVEL 

On  account  of  the  loose  character  of  the  soil  and  the  inflow  of 
water  when  the  excavation  reached  grade,  it  was  necessary  to 
support  the  shovel  on  planking.  A  movable,  sectional,  plat- 
form was  built  of  4-in.  X  8-in.  timbers,  bolted  together  to  form 
sections  3  ft.  wide  and  12  ft.  long.  Four  of  these  sections  were 
used  on  straight  stretches,  and  two  triangular-shaped  sections, 
half  the  size  of  the  rectangular  sections,  were  employed  on  the 
turns.  Near  the  center  of  both  ends  of  each  section  was  placed 
a  heavy  iron  eye  by  means  of  which  the  section  could  be  shifted 
around  with  a  chain  attached  to  the  dipper  arm. 

Neglecting  time  lost  through  breaks  in  machinery,  inclement 
weather,  etc.,  the  shovel  was  excavating  about  60  per  cent,  of  the 
working  time.  Special  effort  was  made  to  keep  the  shovel  always 
supplied  with  wagons  to  load,  and  very  little  delay  was  occa- 
sioned from  waiting  for  teams.  From  two  to  three  shovelfuls 
were  required  to  load  each  wagon  to  an  average  capacity  of 
about  1%  cu.  yd.  (loose  measurement).  On  account  of  the  loose- 
ness of  the  material,  the  average  shovelful  was  about  %  cubic 
yard.  Based  on  a  large  number  of  observations,  the  average  time 
to  make  a  complete  dipper  swing  was  26  sec.  and  the  minimum 
time  was  18  seconds.  The  average  time  to  load  a  wagon,  with 
three  swings,  was  1  min.  46  sec.,  and  the  minimum  time  was  1 
min.  21  seconds. 

LABOR  AND  FUEL  COSTS 

The  labor  crew  consisted  of  one  foreman,  one  engineer,  one 
fireman  and  two  pitmen,  or  laborers.  Following  is  a  schedule 
of  labor  expenses  per  day  of  9  hours: 

1  foreman  @  $6 . 00  per  day $6 . 00 

1  engineer  @  $0 . 45  per  hour 4 . 05 

1  fireman    @  $0 . 30  per  hour 2.70 

2  pitmen     @  $2 .03  per  day 4.06 

Total  labor  cost  per  9-hr,  day $16 . 81 


468     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


Water  was  supplied  to  the  boilers  through  a  rubber  hose.  Coal 
and  coke  were  hauled  thrice  daily  from  a  pile  on  the  east  side  of 
the  excavation  and  shoveled  into  a  large  wooden  bunker  built 
on  the  rear  of  the  machine.  The  fuel  cost  for  the  operation  of 
the  shovel  was  as  follows: 


7  tons  coal 
1  ton  coke 


$6.25. 

$6.75., 


Total  cost  of  fuel 


$43.75 
6.75 

$50.50 


The  excavation  was  leveled  up  and  made  closely  to  grade  by 
the  use  of  a  slip  scraper,  which  was  attached  by  a  chain  to  the 
dipper  handle.  This  work  was  done  as  far  as  practicable,  during 


FIG.   187. — Levelling-up  basement  excavation  with  scraper.     (Photo  by  Author.) 

the  short  periods  of  waiting  for  wagons,  at  the  beginning  and  end 
of  each  day's  work.  The  method  of  operating  the  slip  scraper 
is  shown  in  Fig.  187. 

The  hauling  away  of  the  excavated  material  was  done  by  rear 
dump  carts  hauled  by  two  horses.  These  carts  had  a  rated  capac- 
ity of  1  cu.  yd.,  and  were  generally  filled  by  three  dipperfuls  to 
a  capacity  of  1 J^  cubic  yards.  Care  was  taken  to  place  the  bulk 
of  the  load  over  the  rear  axle,  so  as  to  facilitate  the  dumping.' 
From  8  io  14  teams  were  used  and  the  ktter  number  proved  to 


MUNICIPAL  IMPROVEMENTS  469 

give  the  most  efficient  operation  of  the  shovel.  The  average 
haul  was  1800  feet.  The  teams  were  run  continuously  in  a  cir- 
cuit, and  except  for  a  short  distance  (about  200  ft.)  the  loaded 
teams  were  not  allowed  to  pass  the  unloaded  teams.  Bunching 
of  the  teams  was  largely  eliminated  by  careful  supervision  of  the 
dumping  and  the  movement  of  the  carts  along  the  road.  A  de- 
cided tendency  to  lag  was  noticed  each  day  during  the  last  hour 
of  work.  Some  drivers  would  stop  work  during  the  last  half 
hour  if  they  thought  that  another  load  would  take  until  after 
5  o'clock  to  dump.  In  the  morning  several  teams  were  usually 
late  in  arriving  at  the  shovel  for  the  first  load.  In  order  to  elimi- 
nate these  times  losses,  at  the  end  of  the  first  week's  work,  a 
bonus  of  25  cents  was  offered  to  each  driver  who  made  24  trips 
per  day.  During  the  first  day's  work  under  the  bonus  plan,  one 
man  made  25  trips,  four  men  made  24  trips  and  seven  others 
raised  their  previous  day's  record  by  one  trip.  After  a  study  of 
this  result,  a  bonus  schedule  was  established  as  follows :  25  cents 
per  day  per  man  for  24  trips;  40  cents  per  day  per  man  for  25 
trips;  50  cents  per  day  per  man  for  26  trips. 

A  study  of  the  haulage  record  was  made  and  shows  that  the 
average  number  of  trips  per  day  per  team  for  the  last  full  day's 
work  (July  22)  was  nearly  25.  Several  teams  made  26  trips 
per  day. 

TIME  RECORDS 

A  timekeeper  stationed  near  the  building  site  kept  a  record  of 
the  time  each  team  entered  the  south  gate  and  left  the  north  gate. 
This  record  served  to  show  the  character  and  length  of  delays  in 
the  yard,  such  as  loss  of  time  in  pulling  up  to  shovel,  and  delay 
at  the  shovel.  The  dump  foreman  kept  a  record  of  the  time  of 
arrival  of  each  team  at  the  dump,  and  also  of  any  delay  in  dump- 
ing and  leaving  the  dump.  The  watches  of  the  yard  timekeeper 
and  the  dump  foreman  were  synchronized  daily.  At  the  end  of 
each  day's  work,  the  two  records  were  compared  and  a  study 
was  made  to  determine  the  number,  character,  length  and  cause 
of  all  delays,  the  inefficient  teams,  the  proper  size  and  distribu- 
tion of  the  load  in  the  carts  for  efficient  hauling  and  dumping. 

The  average  length  of  haul  was  1800  feet.  The  average  time 
to  make  a  round  trip  was  about  21.5  min.,  and  the  minimum 
time  was  15  minutes.  Each  of  the  two  dump  sites  was  a  low, 
swampy  basin  which  it  was  desired  to  grade  up  to  the  level  of  the 


470     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

adjacent  streets.  The  fill  at  each  site  was  made  at  two  points 
simultaneously  and  was  built  out  from  firm  soil  by  rear  dumping 
from  platforms.  These  platforms  were  made  of  several  sections 
of  2-in.  X  12-in.  planks  16  ft.  long,  cleated  together  on  the  under 
side.  As  the  dump  was  carried  out,  the  sections  of  platform 
were  moved  ahead.  Railroad  ties  were  used  as  dumping  blocks. 
To  facilitate  the  dumping,  especially  when  the  sand  and  clay 


10      11      13      14      15      16      17      18      30      21      22      23      24 
Time  of  Operation  -  Days  in  July,  1914. 

FIG.  188. — Cost  of  steam  shovel  excavation  of  basement  of    large  industrial 

building. 

was  wet  and  sticky,  the  drivers  greased  the  main  axle  trunnions 
and  salted  the  inside  surfaces  of  the  carts  each  morning  before 
starting  work.  The  depth  of  fill  varied  from  0  ft.  to  7  feet. 

The  labor  used  in  operating  the  dump  during  the  first  week 
consisted  of  a  foreman,  a  subforeman  and  four  laborers.  This 
force  was  gradually  reduced  to  a  foreman  and  three  laborers 
during  the  last  four  days  of  work.  Thus  an  economy  of  30  per 
cent,  was  effected  during  the  time  that  an  increased  output  of 
16  per  cent,  occurred.  Figure  188  and  Table  XXXI  give  a  sum- 
mary of  the  total  daily  and  the  unit  costs  for  the  various  divisions 
of  the  work  and  the  job  as  a  whole. 


MUNICIPAL  IMPROVEMENTS 


471 


TABLE  XXXI. — COST  SUMMARY — STEAM-SHOVEL   EXCAVATION   OF  BASE- 
MENT FOR  BUILDING  FOR  DENNISON  MANUFACTURING  COMPANY, 
SOUTH  FRAMINGHAM,  MASS. 


Date, 
1914 

Daily 
cost  of 
shovel 
excava- 
tion 

Daily 
cost 
dump 

Daily 
cost 
shovel 
re- 
pairs 

Daily 
cost  of 
haul- 
ing 

Total  cost 
to  date 

Daily 
yard- 
age 

Total 
yard- 
age to 
date 

Daily 
total 
unit 
cost 

Average 
total   unit 
cost 
to  date 

July    6 

$11  89 

$5  63 

$9  76 

$27  28 

83 

$0  329 

$0.329 

July    7 

18  79 

9  69 

49  50 

105  26 

9.1  a 

296 

0  366 

0.355 

July    8 

16  56 

20  72 

55  00 

197  54      3H4. 

600 

0  303 

0.329 

July    9 

13  41 

17  17 

66  00 

294  22 

379 

979 

0  254 

0.300 

July  10 

15  45 

17  18 

66  00 

392  75 

361 

1340 

0  273 

0.294 

July  11 

15  41 

15  71 

66  00 

489  87 

336 

1676 

0  287 

0.292 

July  13  

14.84 

15.47 

$10.24 

66.00 

596.42 

343 

2019 

0.301 

0.295 

July  14  

12.69 

12.89 



66.00 

688.00 

364 

2383 

0.251 

0.289 

July  15  

15.96 

19.31 

2.35 

65.38 

791.00 

369 

2752 

0.279 

0.8275 

July  16  

24.55 

14.24 

1.35 

67.82 

898.96 

329 

3081 

0.328 

0.292 

July  17  

15.50 

14.24 

2.49 

74.54 

1005.73 

380 

3461 

0.280 

0.290 

July  18  

13.23 

18.51 

1.57 

73.49 

1112.53 

408 

3869 

0.261 

0.2875 

July  20  

12.68 

15.38 

73  93 

1214  52 

395 

4264 

0  258 

0.285 

July  21  

14.40 

11.51 

66  50 

1306  93 

335 

4599 

0  276 

0.285 

July  22  

13.14 

11.65 

82  75 

1414  47 

412 

5011 

0  261 

0.282 

July  23  

20.83 

11.63 

0.90 

79.50 

1527.33 

461 

5472 

0.245 

0.279 

July  24  

12.48 

5.61 

30.42 

1575.84 

167 

5639 

0.280 

0.279 

Item 

Total  cost 

Unit  cost   per 
per  cu.  yd.1 

Labor  of  shovel  

$262  31 

$0  0515 

Labor  at  dump  

236  53 

0  0464 

Labor  on  roads  and  inclines 

18  90 

0  0037 

Teams  and  hauling  

1058  59 

0  2078 

Superintendence,  etc  

150  00 

0  0294 

Lumber  for  inclines,  platforms,  etc  

250  00 

0  0491 

Unloading,  setting  up,  dismantling  and  loading 
shovel  

179  05 

0  0351 

Rental  of  shovel  

390  00 

0  0765 

Coal,  oil,  waste,  repairs,  etc  

66.60 

0.0131 

*~  Total  

$2611  98 

$0  5126 

347.  Resume. — The  trench  excavator  is  an  efficient  and  eco- 
nomical machine  where  the  magnitude  of  the  job  warrants  its 
installation  and  use.  The  depth  of  trench  which  governs  the 
use  of  machinery  is  about  8  ft.  for  pipe-trench  work  and  3  ft. 

1  Based  on  total  computed  excavation  (place  measurement)  of  5095  cubic 
yards. 


472     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

for  tile-trench  work.  The  type  of  excavator  to  use  in  any  case 
depends  upon  the  character  and  extent  of  the  work,  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  trench,  the  kind  and  condition  of  the  soil,  the  avail- 
ability and  cost  of  labor  and  fuel,  etc. 

The  selection  of  a  machine  for  pipe-trench  work  should  be 
made  with  great  care  in  order  to  secure  the  excavator  best  suited 
to  local  conditions.  For  ordinary  trench  excavation  where  the 
soil  is  firm  and  free  from  obstructions,  and  where  the  width  and 
depth  of  trench  do  not  exceed  72  in.  and  20ft.,  respectively,  the 
continuous  bucket  excavator  is  the  most  efficient  machine. 
Where  the  soil  is  very  hard  or  where  large  boulders  and  other  ob- 
structions abound,  the  trestle  cable  or  trestle  track  machine 
should  be  used.  These  latter  types  of  machines  are  especially 
useful  in  the  excavation  of  trenches  over  6  ft.  in  width,  and 
where  the  work  is  done  in  restricted  areas.  In  rough  country, 
such  as  valleys,  the  cableway  excavator  can  be  used  to  advantage 
to  span  the  depressions  and  uneven  surface  conditions.  The 
trestle  cable,  trestle  track  and  cableway  excavators  have  the  spe- 
cial advantage  of  doing  the  work  in  sections  and  backfilling  one 
part  as  the  other  part  is  being  excavated. 

For  the  construction  of  tile-drain  trenches,  the  former  may 
often  use  a  form  of  ditching  plow,  where  there  is  not  more  than 
about  3  miles  of  line.  However,  in  hard  or  rocky  soil  and  where 
a  trench  machine  may  be  used,  the  latter  is  the  more  economical 
and  efficient.  Where  any  land  owner  has  over  15  miles  of 
tile  trench  to  construct,  the  purchase  of  a  trench  excavator  would 
be  justified,  assuming  a  sale  value  of  about  one-half  the  initial 
cost.  Some  forms  of  machine  have  a  detachable  excavating 
equipment,  so  that  the  operating  section  may  be  used  as  a  tractor 
for  general  farm  service.  Such  an  arrangement  would  also  be 
of  use  to  the  contractor  for  the  purpose  of  haulage,  etc. 

Trench  excavators  are  peculiarly  susceptible  to  breakage  and 
delays  on  account  of  faulty  operation.  The  land  owner  or 
contractor  in  selecting  a  machine  should  have  in  mind  the  fol- 
lowing requisites;  simplicity  of  construction,  small  number  of 
parts  of  operating  and  excavating  equipments,  high  grade  of 
material  and  excellence  of  the  proportion  of  the  various  parts  of 
the  whole  machine. 

The  excavation  of  basements  and  foundations  for  various  kinds 
of  structures  is  a  problem  which  requires  the  careful  study  of 
the  conditions  of  each  case.  There  is  probably  no  class  of  ex- 


MUNICIPAL  IMPROVEMENTS  473 

cavation  work  where  there  is  greater  opportunity  for  the  use  of 
judgment  and  the  exercise  of  ingenuity  in  the  selection  and 
adaptation  of  machinery.  The  attention  of  the  reader  is  called 
to  Arts.  344  and  346,  pages  458  and  465  for  analytical  dis- 
cussions of  two  typical  cases  of  basement  excavation. 

348.  Bibliography. — The  reader  is  referred  to  Art.  105,  page 
143,  for  further  references. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

QUARRIES,  OPEN -CUT  MINES,  GRAVEL  PITS  AND  BRICK 

YARDS 

349.  Preliminary. — Modern   open-cut    excavation   of  'mines, 
gravel  and  sand  pits,  stone  quarries,  clay  pits,  etc.,  has  undergone 
a  great  development  during  the  last  18  years  (1900-18).    The 
former  crude  and  uneconomical  methods  of  hand,  wheel-barrow 
and  cart  work  have  been  largely  superseded  by  the  use  of  power 
equipment,  consisting  of  excavating,  conveying  and  transport- 
ing machinery. 

The  development  of  large  open-cut  mines,  quarries  and  pits 
is  most  efficiently/  done  with  power  excavators;  the  revolving 
shovel,  the  fixed-platform  shovel,  the  drag-line  excavator,  etc. 
The  type  of  excavator  and  transportation  equipment  to  use,  in 
any  case,  depends  on  the  character  of  the  material,  the  area  of 
the  excavation,  the  depth  of  cut,  length  of  haul,  etc.  Special 
machinery  has  recently  been  devised  for  the  excavation  and  opera- 
tion of  sand  and  gravel  pits. 

The  method  of  excavation  of  quarries,  open-cut  mines  and  pits 
will  be  described  in  detail  in  the  following  series  of  articles,  which 
are  abstracted  from  data  compiled  in  1914  by  the  author  for  the 
"  Concrete-Cement  Age. " 

350.  Use  of  Excavating  Machinery  in  the  Cement  Quarry.— 
The  development  of  the  American  Portland  Cement  industry 
and  the  universal  use  of  concrete  during  the  past  decade,  have 
necessitated  the  opening  up  and  excavation  of  great  quarries. 
Cement  plants  have  been  located  near  the  natural  deposits  of  clay, 
shale,  marl  and  limestone,  which  are  of  sufficiently  uniform  char- 
acter and  in  large  enough  quantity  to  warrant  a  permanent  in- 
stallation.    In  some  cases,  notably  in  the  Middle  West,  the  lime- 
stone is  quarried  from  some  great  deposit  of  excellent  character 
and  shipped  to  the  cement  plants  at  a  distance.     Stone  which  is 
not  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  cement  or  for  building  pur- 
poses is  generally  valuable  for  concrete  aggregate,  road  metal  and 
railroad  ballast.     Whatever  the  ultimate  use  of  the  stone,  it 
must  be  removed  from  its  native  ledge,  transported  to  the  crusher, 
and  broken  into  small  fragments. 

474 


QUARRIES,  OPEN-CUT  MINES,  GRAVEL  PITS,  ETC.     475 

The  purpose  of  this  article  is  to  discuss  the  methods  of  the 
excavation  of  the  raw  material  used  in  the  manufacture  of  cement 
and  its  transportation  to  the  crushers  or  the  material  storage 
house.  These  are  the  first  steps  in  the  manufacture  of  cement 
and  although  of  prime  importance  are  rarely  given  proper  con- 
sideration. Their  performance  is  largely  governed  by  local  con- 
ditions of  quality  of  material,  geology  and  topography  of  quarry 
and  plant  sites.  No  general  method  or  rule  for  the  handling 
of  the  raw  materials  can  be  given  and  so  the  author  will  endeavor 
to  describe  some  of  the  more  common  methods. 

The  method  used  in  the  excavation  and  transportation  of  the 
raw  materials  depend  upon  primarily  the  character,  quantity, 
accessibility  and  relative  location  of  the  deposits.  The  follow- 
ing classification  is  suggested: 

RAW  MATERIALS 
Method  of  excavation: 
Nature : 

Limestone 

Marl 

Clay 

Slate  or  shale 
Quantity: 

Small 

Large 
Quality : 

Variable 

Uniform 

Accessibility: 

In  exposed  deposits — quarrying 

Extent  and  nature  of  overburden — stripping 

In  deep  deposits — mining 
Machinery: 

Shovel 

Scraper 

Grader 

Steam  shovel 

Scraper-bucket  excavator 

Locomotive  crane 

Floating-dipper  dredge 
Method  of  transportation : 
.  Relative  location : 

Proximity  of  deposits  to  mill 

Proximity  of  deposits  to  each  other 

Elevation  as  to  mill 


476      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

Systems : 

Gravity 

Elevator 

Hauling 

Aerial  conveying 

Pumping 
Machinery: 

Wheelbarrows 

Wagons 

Dump  cars  in  train 

Aerial  tramway  or  cableway 

Marl  pump 
There  are  three  general  methods  of  excavating  the  raw  materials: 

A.  Quarrying 

B.  Dredging 
C>  Mining 

About  85  per  cent,  of  all  the  raw  material  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  cement  is  quarried.  Quarrying  is  the  removal  of 
materials  from  open  excavations,  such  as  pits,  cuts,  trenches, 
banks,  etc.,  and  comprises  the  methods  used  in  the  removal  of 
clay,  shale,  slate  and  limestone. 

Marl  generally  occurs  in  low,  wet  basins  and  must  be  removed 
by  dredging.  Occasionally  the  clay  occurs  with  the  marl. 

When  the  shale  or  limestone  occurs  in  strata  which  dip  at  a 
sharp  angle  below  the  surface,  it  becomes  necessary  to  sink 
shafts  or  drive  tunnels  to  remove  the  material.  These  under- 
ground methods  are  called  mining. 

QUARRYING 

The  necessary  steps  in  quarrying  may  be  enumerated  as  follows: 

A.  Stripping 

B.  Drilling  and  blasting 

C.  Excavating 

D.  Transporting 

The  rock  is  generally  found  in  sub-soil  deposits,  which  are  over- 
laid with  a  surface  soil  of  glacial  clay  or  alluvium,  called  the  over- 
burden. The  amount  of  the  overburden  depends  upon  the  dip 
of  the  strata,  the  depth  of  surface  soil  and  the  method  of  opening 
up  the  excavation.  The  cost  per  ton  of  stripping  should  be  kept 
as  low  as  possible  because  this  cost  is  indirect  and  a  burden.  The 
stripping  should  be  thoroughly  done  so  as  to  reduce  to  a  minimum 
the  cost  of  washing. 


QUARRIES,  OPEN-CUT  MINES,  GRAVEL  PITS,  ETC.     477 

The  excavating  machinery,  which  can  be  efficiently  used  in 
stripping  may  be  classed  as  follows : 

(a)  Scrapers 
(6)   Graders 

(c)  Shovels 

(d)  Scraper-bucket  excavators 

(e)  Cableway  excavators 
(/)    Power  excavators 
(g)   Hydraulic 

(a)  and  (6)  Scrapers  and  graders  are  efficient  and  economical 
excavators  for  stripping  where  the  amount  of  material  to  be  moved 
is  small  and  the  haul  not  greater  than  1000  feet.  Hence  these 
machines  generally  would  not  be  economical  to  use  in  the  cement 
quarry,  as  the  quantity  of  material  to  be  removed  is  usually 
very  large  and  the  haul  excessive.  Cases  may  occur  where  large 
size  scrapers,  such  as  the  Maney  four-wheel  scraper  or  a  large 
elevating  grader  may  be  used  with  traction  engines  to  furnish 
the  loading  power,  when  the  overburden  is  shallow  and  the  haul 
short.  Under  favorable  working  conditions  with  an  average 
haul  of  600  ft.,  the  stripping  of  loam  and  clay  would  cost  from 
10  to  15  cents  per  cubic  yard  moved. 

(c)  Shovels  may  be  operated  by  steam  or  electric  power  and  be 
fixed  or  revolving.  The  availability  of  local  power  will  largely 
determine  the  most  economical  kind  to  use.  Near  a  large  city 
where  electric  power  is  cheap  or  along  the  lines  of  large  power 
plants,  electric  power  can  be  used  advantageously.  Generally 
steam  must  be  used  and  the  fuel  and  water  problems  become  im- 
portant. It  is  always  economical  to  use  a  grade  of  bituminous 
coal  high  in  heat  value,  say  not  less  than  10,000  B.t.u.  A 
small  size  lump,  about  No.  2  nut  size  is  easy  to  handle  and  beds 
well  upon  the  grate.  The  surface  waters  of  the  Middle  West 
are  generally  heavy  with  sodium,  lime  and  magnesium  salts, 
iron  and  vegetable  matter,  which  are  scale-forming  substances. 
It  is  highly  desirable  to  purify  and  soften  all  water  before  it 
is  fed  to  the  boilers.  This  may  be  accomplished  by  treating  the 
water  with  lime  and  alum  and  then  passing  it  through  a  mechan- 
ical filter.  The  water  softening  plant  and  filter  should  be  in- 
stalled in  the  power  house  of  the  plant  and  all  the  water  used  for 
the  operation  of  the  machinery  thus  purified.  The  machinery  in 
the  quarry  can  be  supplied  by  a  pipe  line  through  which  the  water 
is  pumped  from  the  power  house.  When  the  quarry  is  isolated 


478     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

and  some  distance  from  the  plant,  a  feed  water  heater  and  puri- 
fier can  be  installed  near  the  boiler  on  the  floor  of  the  steam 
shovel. 

The  depth  and  extent  of  the  overburden  will  largely  determine 
the  most  efficient  type  of  shovel  to  use  in  any  particular  case. 
When  the  stripping  is  clay  or  loam  and  in  shallow  beds  up  to 
10  ft.  in  depth,  the  small  revolving  shovel  is  the  better  type. 
It  is  light,  quick  in  operation  and  easily  moved  along  as  the  ex- 
cavation progresses.  When  the  overburden  is  sand  or  gravel 
and  in  layers  up  to  20  ft.  the  steam  shovel  with  a  fixed  body 
is  the  best  type. 

The  excavated  material  may  be  dumped  into  wagons  hauled  by 
teams  or  traction  engines  or  into  cars  hauled  by  dinkey  engines. 
For  a  permanent  plant,  and  long  hauls,  the  latter  method  is  the 
most  efficient. 

The  following  statement  is  given  as  a  typical  example  of  strip- 
ping in  an  open  cement  quarry. 

The  overburden  is  a  loam  and  sandy  clay  overlying  the  lime- 
stone in  a  depth  varying  from  3  to  8  feet.  The  soil  is  fairly 
uniform  in  character,  and  'quite  free  from  stone  and  stumps.  A 
typical  revolving  shovel,  equipped  with  a  %-yd.  dipper,  and  a 
truck  with  four,  wide-tired  iron  wheels,  is  used  for  the  excavation. 
The  shovel  is  operated. by  an  engineer,  fireman,  and  a  general 
assistant  and  pitman.  The  fuel  used  is  a  good  grade  of  Southern 
Illinois  coal  of  No.  2  nut  size,  and  is  hauled  to  the  shovel  in  the 
cars  and  shoveled  directly  into  the  bunkers  of  the  shovel.  Water 
is  supplied  by  a  hose  attached  to  a  2-in.  galvanized  iron  branch 
of  the  4-in.  C.  I.  main  from  the  power  plant.  The  water  is  puri- 
fied in  a  Eureka  water  softener  and  filtered  before  it  is  pumped 
out  to  the  quarry. 

The  excavated  material  is  dumped  into  6-yd.  side  dump  cars 
which  are  hauled  in  trams  of  four  cars  each  by  a  35-ton  dinky 
engine  over  a  narrow-gage  track.  The  haul  is  about  1000  feet. 
Under  ordinary  working  conditions  during  a  10-hr.1*  day,  the 
average  excavation  is  200  cubic  yards. 

Following  is  an  estimate  ofjthe  cost  of  operation: 

Labor: 

1  engineer $3 . 50 

1  fireman 2.00 

1  pitman 1.75 

Total  labor  cost $7.25 

Labor    cost    per    cu.    yd,    excavated,  $7.25    -f-  200  =  $0.03625 


QUARRIES,  OPEN-CUT  MINES,  GRAVEL  PITS,  ETC.     479 

Fuel: 

1  ton  No.  2  nut  coal  @  $2. 75 $2.75 

Fuel  cost  per  cu.  yd $0. 01375 

Oil: 

Y±  gal.  lubricating  oil  @  45ff $0. 1125 

K  gal.  engine  oil  @  40£ 0 .08 

Y2  gal.  black  oil  @  42ff 0.21 

Waste,  packing,  etc 0 . 1975 


Total $0.60 

Cost  of  oil,  waste,  etc.,  per  cu.  yd.  excavated,  $0.60-^  200  =  $0.0030 

General  Expenses: 

Depreciation  (based  on  5  per  cent,  and  20  year  life). . .  $0.70 

Interest  @  6  per  cent 0 . 84 

Repairs  and  incidentals 1 . 00 

Total  cost  of  general  expenses $2 . 54 

Cost  of  general  expenses  per  cu.  yd.,  $2.54  -r-  200  =  $0.0127 

Total  cost  of  operation  of  10-hr,  day $13 . 14 

Cost  of  operation  per  cu.  yd.  of  excavated  material. .  $0.0557 


FIG.  189. — Revolving  shovel  loading  train  with  clay.     (Photo  by  Author.) 

A  24-ton  shovel  loading  a  train  of  side  dump  cars  is  shown 
in  Fig.  189. 

(d)  The  scraper-bucket  or  drag-line  excavator  is  becoming 
a  well-known  type  of  dry-land  machine  for  earth  excavation. 
It  can  be  operated  by  steam,  gasoline  or  electric  power,  depend- 
ing upon  the  relative  availability  and  cost  of  the  local  supplies 
of  power.  The  use  of  caterpillar  tractors  allows  the  machine 
to  move  over  soft  and  marshy  ground,  and  eliminates  the  track 
gang.  The  upper  frame  is  generally  mounted  on  a  turntable, 


480     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

which  allows  the  machine  to  operate  in  a  complete  circle,  whose 
radius  is  governed  by  the  length  of  the  boom.  The  latter  is 
usually  made  of  trussed  steel  shapes,  up  to  a  length  of  100  ft. 
and  will  permit  of  excavation  to  a  depth  of  30  ft.  below  the  sur- 
face. There  are  several  makes  of  scraper  buckets  on  the  market 
and  most  of  them  are  of  the  two-line  type.  In  selecting  a  bucket 
make  sure  that  proper  provision  is  made  for  quick  action,  posi- 
tive control,  and  strength. 

The  excavated  material  may  be  dumped  into  wagons  or  cars 
which  are  hauled  away  in  trains  by  traction  or  dinky  engines. 
Figure  190  shows  a  scraper-bucket  excavator  stripping  and  dump- 


FIG.   190. — Scraper-bucket  excavator  stripping  quarry. 

ing  into  a  box  car  which  will  form  part  of  a  train,  to  remove  the 
excavated  material  to  a  dump  across  the  quarry. 

The  author  knows  of  one  case  where  a  drag-line  excavator 
was  used  in  conjunction  with  a  cableway  for  the  stripping  of 
an  open  quarry.  The  overburden  consisted  of  5  to  20  ft. 
of  loam,  sand,  and  gravel.  The  cableway  consisted  of  two  sets 
of  towers  about  30  ft.  apart,  and  each  set  supporting  a  1000 
ft.  cable,  over  wnich  moved  a  bucket  containing  1  cubic 
yard.  The  head  towers  were  located  on  the  top  of  the  quarry  ledge 
and  their  tops  were  about  30  ft.  above  those  of  the  tail  towers 
located  in  the  valley  below.  The  bucket,  when  loaded  directly 
by  the  bucket  of  the  excavator,  moved  by  gravity  to  the  lower 


'  QUARRIES,  OPEN-CUT  MINES,  GRAVEL  PITS,  ETC.     481 

towers,  where  it  was  dumped.  It  was  then  hauled  back  by  a  6- 
h.p.  friction-drum  engine.  This  equipment  was  operated  for  sev- 
eral years  at  an  approximate  cost  of  8 J^  cents  per  cubic  yard  of  ex- 
cavated material.  It  was  later  replaced  by  a  small  steam  shovel 
and  narrow-gage  dump  car  equipment  with  subsequent  reduction 
of  cost  of  excavation  to  5  cents  per  cubic  yard.  However,  it 
is  probable  that  the  cost  of  operation  with  the  drag-line  cableway 
equipment  could  have  been  somewhat  reduced  by  the  use  of 
a  large  capacity,  high-speed  cableway. 

(e)  Cableway  excavators  have  been  little  used  in  quarry 
stripping  and  generally  as  conveyors  of  the  material  which  has 
been  excavated  by  other  machines.  When  the  stripping  can  be 
done  in  long  narrow  areas  and  the  dump  is  at  a  convenient  dis- 
tance from  the  excavation  (not  more  than  1500  ft.)  movable 
towers  with  a  high  speed  power,  hoisting  and  conveying  equip- 
ment may  be  used  to  advantage.  But  it  is  doubtful  that  even 
under  the  most  favorable  circumstances  of  surface  excavation 
that  such  a  method  would  be  economical  and  hence  further  dis- 
cussion will  be  made  in  the  article  concerning  quarrying. 

(/)  The  tower  excavator  is  a  unique  type  of  excavator  which 
was  developed  and  used  with  success  several  years  ago  on  the 
Chicago  Drainage  Canal  and  recently  on  the  construction  of  the 
New  York  State  Barge  Canal. 

Although  the  author  has  not  known  of  the  use  of  a  tower  ex- 
cavator for  stripping  in  a  quarry,  he  believes  that  it  could  be 
very  efficiently  used.  An  inclined  loading  platform  and  hopper 
could  be  framed  out  from  the  tower  at  a  suitable  height  to  pro- 
vide for  a  train  of  standard  dump  cars  to  pass  underneath. 
The  filled  bucket  would  be  hoisted  up  the  incline  and  dumped 
into  the  hopper.  Two  bucket  loads  would  fill  a  4-yd.  car  and 
three  loads  a  6-yd.  car.  The  average  loading  time  for  a  6-yd. 
car  would  be  about  3^  minutes. 

(g)  The  hydraulic  method  of  excavation  has  been  used  largely 
in  the  past  in  placer  mining  for  gold.  In  recent  years  it  has  been 
utilized  for  the  raising  of  large  hills  and  the  grading  up  of  surfaces 
which  are  very  uneven. 

As  a  large  number  of  cement  quarries  are  in  close  proximity 
to  rivers  or  lakes  where  water  is  plentiful  in  large  quantities, 
hydraulicing  or  sluicing  should  be  an  economical  and  efficient 
method  of  removing  the  overburden. 

A  pumping  plant  of  sufficient  capacity  to  supply  the  desired 

31 


482     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

number  of  monitors  should  be  installed  near  the  water  supply  at 
a  low  elevation.  The  equipment  of  such  a  plant  would  include 
large  multiple  stage  centrifugal  or  turbine  pumps,  direct  con- 
nected to  electric  generators  or  steam  prime  movers.  The  former 
is  the  more  economical  and  satisfactory  where  electric  power  is 
available  at  a  reasonable  rate.  The  efficiency  of  such  a  plant 
under  average  working  conditions  should  not  be  less  than  50 
per  cent.  See  Fig.  191.  The  pumps  should  force  water  through 
pipes  (preferably  especially  constructed  wood-stave  pipe)  to 
the  nozzle  or  monitors,  which  are  mounted  on  the  surface  at 
suitable  points.  See  Fig.  192.  The  water  emerges  from  an 
orifice  having  a  diameter  of  from  2J^  to  6  in.  and  at  a 
pressure  of  from  50  to  150  pounds.  Ordinarily,  a  tip  having  a 
diameter  of  from  3  to  4J-£  in.  giving  a  pressure  of  from  75  to 
100  Ib.  is  used. 

.  The  excavated  material  is  highly  diluted  with  water  (generally 
about  4  to  20  per  cent,  of  soil  to  water)  and  can  be  easily  removed 
through  pipes  or  flumes  to  the  disposal  point.  In  a  cement  quarry 
the  monitors  should  be  mounted  on  the  higher  land  and  operated 
so  as  to  flush  the  soil  toward  the  lower  elevations  along  the  river 
or  lake.  The  fluid  material  could  be  directed  and  collected  by 
constructing  retaining  walls  to  dam  it  up.  A  recent  method  is  to 
use  "sheer  boards"  to  gradually  build  up  an  embankment.  This 
method  consists  of  a  series  of  narrow  boards  laid  parallel,  with 
their  lower  edges  a  few  inches  above  the  ground  surfaces  and 
fastened  to  the  inside  of  stakes.  As  the  water  deposits  its  sus- 
pended material,  the  embankment  gradually  rises.  When  it 
reaches  the  top  of  the  first  set  of  sheer  boards,  a  second  set  is 
set  on  the  top  of  the  embankment  and  inside  and  parallel  to  the 
first  set.  Thus  an  embankment  with  any  desirable  side  slopes 
can  be  easily  and  rapidly  built  up.  The  surplus  water  flows 
away  to  a  low  elevation  where  it  can  be  drained  off  into  the  main 
supply  or  to  a  basin  from  which  it  is  pumped  into  a  reservoir  or 
directly  through  the  pipes. 

The  following  brief  statement  of  the  hydraulic  excavation 
of  a  large  hilly  district  of  Seattle,  Wash.,  is  given  as  suggestive. 
The  soil  excavated  was  a  yellow  clay  6  to  12  ft.  in  depth,  under- 
laid with  a  hard  blue  glacial  clay.  The  water  supply  was  ob- 
tained from  three  sources.  An  old  steam  pumping  plant  fur- 
nished water  to  a  reservoir  having  a  capacity  of  850,000  gar. 
and  located  about  1  mile  from  the  works.  The  supply  from 


QUARRIES,  OPEN-CUT  MINES,  GRAVEL  PITS,  ETC.     483 


FIG.  191. — Pumping  plant  for  sluicing  equipment. 


FIG.  192. — Excavation  by  hydraulicking. 


484      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

this  source  was  about  6,000,000  gal.  per  24  hours.  A  portion 
of  the  city  supply  from  another  source  was  also  diverted  into 
this  reservoir  and  augmented  the  first  supply  by  about  8,000,000 
gals,  per  24  hours.  The  elevation  of  the  overflow  of  the  reser- 
voir was  such  as  to  give  a  working  gravity  head  of  about  200 
ft.  at  the  monitors.  The  city  water  was  paid  for  at  the  rate  of 
$15.00  per  million  gallons.  The  third  source  of  supply  was  an 
electrically  operated  pumping  plant  located  on  a  small  bay  about 
1J4  miles  from  the  center  of  the  job.  The  equipment  of  this  plant 
consisted  of  four  1-in.  five-stage  Worthington  turbine  pumps 
direct  connected  in  units  of  two  each  to  two  650-h.p.  two-phase 
2000-volt  alternating-current  motors.  The  pumps  were  provided 
with  a  12-in.  suction  and  a  10-in.  discharge.  The  combined 
efficiency  of  the  plant  was  about  63  per  cent,  and  the  capacity 
when  running  at  690  h.p.  under  a  375-ft.  head,  was  8400  gal. 
per  minute  or  12,000,000  gal.  per  24  hours.  The  maximum 
suction  lift  was  23.8  ft.,  minimum  about  7  ft.  and  the  average 
15  feet.  The  discharge  from  the  plant  was  through  6100  ft.  of  24- 
in.  machine-banded  wood-stave  pipe,  having  1%-in.  staves  and 
No.  1  wire  spaced  %Q  in.,  guaranteed  to  withstand  165  Ib.  pressure. 
Water  was  supplied  to  Risdon,  and  Hendy  types  of  monitors 
of  No.  2  and  No.  3  sizes,  supplied  with  3-  and  4%-in.  removable 
tips.  The  working  pressure  at  the  tip  varied  from  60  to  100 
pounds. 

The  cost  of  operation  of  the  pumping  plant  was  $65,663.29 
for  a  continuous  period  of  from  May  1,  1908  to  December  3,  1909. 
4,326,689,219  gal.  of  water  were  pumped  at  a  cost  of  $15.18  a 
million  gallons.  The  material  excavated  was  highly  diluted, 
the  average  percentage  of  spoil  to  volume  of  water  being  about 
6.75.  On  the  whole  work,  10,095,179,594  gal.  of  water  were 
used  to  remove  3,347,883  cu.  yd.  of  clay  and  gravel  during  the 
perio d  from  May  1, 1907  to  December  31, 1909.  The  water  cost  av- 
eraged $14.54  per  million  gallons.  The  amount  of  excavation 
varied  from  19,320  cu.  yd.  to  235,952  cu.  yd.  per  month.  The 
contract  price  of  excavation  was  10  cents  per  cubic  yard. 

351.  Handling  of  Excavated  Material  in  the  Cement  Quarry. — 
The  rock  as  it  lies  on  the  quarry  floor  after  being  blasted  is  in 
a  mass  of  fragments,  varying  in  size  from  a  pea  to  those  several 
feet  in -their  least  dimension.  In  order  that  the  excavating  ma- 
chinery may  handle  these  large  pieces  of  rock,  it  becomes  nec- 
essary to  break  them  up  into  smaller  pieces  having  a  maximum 


'QUARRIES,  OPEN-CUT  MINES,  GRAVEL  PITS,  ETC.     485 

size  of  3  ft.  in  the  greatest  dimension.     The  following  methods 
of  breaking  up  large  fragments  of  rock  have  been  used : 

(a)  Dropping  of  heavy  weights 

(6)  Use  of  sledge  hammers 

(c)  Block  holing 

(d)  Mud  capping 

(e)  Undermining 

(a)  The  method  of  dropping  heavy  weights  from  a  considerable 
height  is  only  practicable  when  a  derrick,  locomotive  crane  or 
cableway  is  available.  The  weight  is  generally  a  large  block  of 
cast  iron  weighing  about  1  ton.  The  height  of  the  drop  should 
be  from  15  ft.  to  30  ft.  and  the  weight  released  suddenly  by  a  trip 
or  friction-drum  engine. 

This  method  is  advantageous  in  a  small  quarry  where  a  derrick 
is  used  or  in  trench  work,  where  the  working  space  is  limited  and 
other  methods  are  therefore  impracticable.  In  a  large  open 
quarry  of  a  cement  plant  however,  this  method  is  rarely  used  and 
is  ordinarily  not  feasible  with  the  equipment  at  hand. 

(6)  The  sledge  hammer  has  been  used  for  the  breaking  up  of 
stone  fragments  since  time  memorial.  The  sledge  used  should  be 
of  such  proportions  that  a  man  of  average  strength  can  wield  it 
efficiently.  A  lighter  sledge  of  about  12  Ib.  weight  used  with 
rapid  blows  is  much  more  effective  than  one  weighing  16  Ib. 
and  used  with  slow  strokes. 

This  method  although  crude,  is  efficient  for  the  breaking  up 
of  fragments  to  about  1  cu.  yd.  in  volume  and  for  sedimen- 
tary or  stratified  stone  such  as  shale.  However,  every  pit  gang 
in  a  quarry  should  be  supplied  with  a  sufficient  number  of  sledges 
for  the  breaking  up  of  those  fragments  of  rock  which  are  too 
small  to  be  economically  broken  up  by  block  holing  or  "mud 
capping"  and  yet  too  large  and  unwieldy  to  be  handled  by  the 
shovel. 

(c)  "Block  holing"  is  the  simple  application  of  the  ordinary 
method  of  drilling  and  blasting  to  the  breaking  up  of  large  rock 
fragments.  The  more  efficient  way  is  to  drill  a  hole  from  a  few 
inches  to  2  ft.  in  depth  and  place  the  center  charge  of  explo- 
sive in  the  hole.  However,  the  more  common  and  quicker  way 
is  to  drill  a  shallow  hole  and  place  a  lesser  part  of  the  explosive 
on  the  rock  above  the  hole  and  cover  up  the  entire  charge  with 
mud. 


486      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

This  method  is  the  most  effective  one  for  the  breaking  up  of 
rock  larger  than  1  cu.  yd.  in  volume.  It  is  "universally 
used  in  open  quarry  excavation  at  the  present  time. 

(d)  "Mud  capping"  is  probably  the  most  popular  method  of 
breaking  up  rock,  especially  with  pit-gang  foremen.     The  plac- 
ing of  the  explosive  directly  upon  the  surface  of  the  rock  and  cov- 
ering it  with  a  mud  blanket  is  a  simple  but  an  expensive  and  un- 
economical process.     The  resulting  efficiency  of  the  explosive 
is  very  low. 

This  method  should  not  be  used  except  when  it  becomes  neces- 
sary to  break  up  a  group  of  huge  pieces  of  rock,  which  are  de- 
laying the  operation  of  the  excavating  machinery. 

(e)  The  method  of  "undermining"  is  little  used  and  not  gen- 
erally known.     It  greatly  resembles  "mud  capping"  but  differs 
essentially  in  that  the  explosive  is  placed  under  the  rock  rather 
than  on  top.     Where  large  masses  of  rock  are  piled  up  together 
the  charge  of  explosive  can  be  placed  on  the  upper  surface  of  the 
lower  fragments  and  thus  have  a  suitable  bed.     The  same  re- 
sults can  be  accomplished  by  this  method  as  by  "mud  capping" 
with  the  use  of  about  one-half  the  amount  of  the  explosive. 

The  method  of  "block  holing"  is  undoubtly  the  most  direct, 
efficient  and  economical  one  to  be  used  for  the  breaking  up  of 
rock  on  the  quarry  floor.  "Mud  capping"  should  only  be  re- 
sorted to  where  quick  results  are  necessary.  However,  delays 
may  often  be  prevented  by  moving  large  masses  of  rock  to  the 
rear  of  the  excavator,  where  they  may  be  broken  up  without  in- 
terfering with  the  loading  operations.  Ordinarily,  the  time  inter- 
val between  the  loading  of  the  cars  or  skips,  when  the  excavator 
is  idle  is  sufficient  in  which  to  do  the  necessary  breaking  up  of  the 
rock. 

The  new  materials  with  whose  excavation  we  are  concerned 
in  the  open  cut  quarry  of  a  cement  plant  are  (a)  clay,  (6)  shale 
and  (c)  limestone. 

These  materials  may  be  found  in  a  nearly  pure  state  in  large 
deposits  or  in  association  to  form  a  rock  of  mixed  composition. 
Generally  the  clay  or  shale  is  excavated  from  surface  deposits 
which  are  in  close  proximity  to  the  limestone.  In  many  cases 
the  clay  is  part  of  the  overburden  which  must  be  removed  before 
the  limestone  can  be  quarried. 

The  following  detailed  descriptions  are  given  in  order  to  present 
to  the  reader  a  clear  and  comprehensive  view  of  the  methods 


QUARRIES,  OPEN-CUT  MINES,  GRAVEL  PITS,  ETC.     487 

in  use  at  the  present  time,  for  the  excavation  of  the  raw  materials 
in  open  cut  quarries  of  cement  plants.  These  descriptions  will 
be  limited  to  two  examples  which  are  composite  views  of  several 
typical  quarries  in  the  eastern  and  western  sections  of  this 
country. 

EXCAVATING  IN  AN  EASTERN  CEMENT  QUARRY 

Description  of  Plant  and  Quarry. — The  cement  plant  and 
quarry  are  located  on  the  upper  reaches  of  one  of  the  many  streams 
which  course  hurriedly  down  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Allegheny 


FIG.  193. — General  plan  of  eastern"cement  plant. 

Mts.  The  general  layout  of  the  plant  and  quarry  is  shown  in 
Fig.  193.  The  plant  is  located  on  a  bench  above  and  on  the 
west  side  of  the  river  and  on  the  main  line  of  a  large  eastern  and 
southern  railroad. 

The  topography  of  the  country  is  rugged  and  broken  and  the 
banks  of  the  valley  rise  rather  precipitiously  from  the  river  to  a 
height  of  from  one  to  two  hundred  feet.  The  sides  of  the  valley 
are  broken  and  irregular  due  to  the  outcropping  at  intervals  of  the 
ledges  of  rock.  Natural  benches  have  thus  been  formed  and 


488      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

these  contain  enough  alluvial  soil  to  support  a  dense  growth  of 
vegetation.  A  loam  and  clay  varying  in  depth  from  several 
inches  to  about  3  ft.  covers  the  surface  of  the  upper  reaches 
of  the  banks.  Underlying  this  is  the  native  rock,  of  which  the 
hills  are  largely  formed  and  is*  an  argellaceous  limestone  varying 
in  quality.  The  quarry  has  been  located  at  a  point  where  the 
limestone  outcrop  is  of  an  excellent  quality  and  contains  a  small 
amount  of  shale.  North  of  the  plant  along  the  west  side  of  the 
valley  is  a  large  deposit  of  shale  overlying  the  limestone.  Thus 
the  quarry  is  located  north  of  the  plant,  on  both  sides  of  the  valley 
as  shown  in  Fig.  193. 

The  plant  has  a  rated  capacity  of  5000  bbl.  of  standard 
Portland  cement  per  day.  The  dry  process  is  used  and  the  shale 
and  limestone  are  mixed  in  the  proportions  of  from  1  to  5  to  1  to 
7,  depending  upon  the  composition  of  the  limestone. 

The  general  layout  of  the  plant,  the  location  of  the  excavating 
machinery  and  the  system  of  transportation  are  clearly  shown 
in  Fig.  193.  Note  especially  the  method  of  excavation  in  benches 
and  the  cableway  or  aerial  tramway  from  the  crusher  house  to 
the  storage  bins  in  the  kiln  house  of  the  plant  across  the  river. 
On  the  west  side  of  the  river  is  located  the  shale  shovel  which  re- 
moves the  strata  of  shale  down  to  the  rock  in  a  series  of  broad 
and  shallow  benches.  The  excavated  material  is  loaded  into 
4-yd.  side-dump  cars  which  carry  it  directly  to  the  crusher  and 
kiln.  On  the  upper  part  of  the  east  bank  of  the  river  is  located 
the  stripping  machine,  which  is  a  drag-line  excavator  mounted 
on  caterpillar  tractors.  This  machine  removes  the  surface  soil 
down  to  the  rock  surface  and  loads  it  into  6-yd.  side-dump  cars 
which  carry  it  to  the  south  end  of  the  quarry  where  the  material 
is  dumped  into  the  open  cut.  Below  the  stripping  excavator  on 
the  lower  part  of  the  bench  are  three  churn  drills.  Two  drills 
are  generally  operating  one  in  advance  and  the  other  in  the  rear 
of  the  shovel.  Sufficient  rock  is  broken  down  in  periodic  blasts 
to  keep  the  shovel  busy  for  at  least  10  days.  The  rock  shovels 
move  along  the  face  of  the  open  cut  and  load  the  rock  fragments 
on  to  steel  skips  which  are  carried  on  flat  cars.  A  detailed  de- 
scription of  the  methods  and  costs  of  operation  of  the  shale  and 
rock  shovels  will  be  given  below. 

Shale  Excavation. — The  shale  is  of  a  loose  friable  character  and 
is  easily  stripped  with  the  45-ton  steam  shovel.  The  latter 
is  mounted  on  two  standard-gage  trucks  which  rest  on  short 


QUARRIES,  OPEN-CUT  MINES,  GRAVEL  PITS,  ETC.     489 


lengths  of  portable  track.  The  dipper  has  a  capacity  of  2J£  cu. 
yd.  and  the  operating  mechanism  consists  of  the  standard  main 
swing  and  thrust  engines  which  are  operated  by  steam  supplied 
by  a  locomotive  type  of  boiler. 

The  crew  consists  of  a  craneman  and  a  fireman,  for  the  opera- 
tion of  the  shovel  and  a  pit  gang  of  three  men. 

Pocahontas  coal  is  used  and  is  brought  out  to  the  shovel  in  the 
dump  cars  and  shoveled  directly  into  the  bunkers  of  the  shovel. 
Water  is  pumped  directly  from  the  river  into  a  large  storage 
tank  above  the  quarry.  From  this  reservoir  the  water  flows 
through  pipes  to  all  parts  of  the  quarry. 

The  shovel  loads  4-yd.  side-dump  cars  in  trains  of  four  cars 
each.  Each  train  is  hauled  by  a  35-ton  dinkey. 

Let  us  assume  the  following  time  analysis  of  the  loading  opera- 
tions. 

Average  time  for  engine  and  four  4-yd.  cars  loaded  to  run  from 
pit  over  about  %  mile  of  track  to  crusher  house,  dump  the  shale 
and  return  empty  to  pit  is  38  minutes. 

Average  time  to  load  a  4-yd.  side-dump  car  is  2  min.  7 
sec.,  the  maximum  time  being  2  min.  54  sec.,  and  the  minimum 
time  1  min.  38  seconds.  Number  of  dipper  loads  to  fill  one  car 
varies  from  two  to  four  depending  upon  quantity  of  shale  in 
dipper.  Average  time  for  one  swing  is  37  seconds.  Average 
loading  time  for  trains  of  four  4-yd.  cars  is  15  min.  43  seconds. 
The  cars  are  loaded  to  about  115  per  cent,  of  their  rated  capacity. 

The  following  is  an  estimate  of  the  cost  of  operation  for  a  10- 
hr.  day  under  average  working  conditions. 

Labor: 

1  engineer  ....................................        $4  .  00 

1  craneman  ...................................         3  .  00 

1  fireman  .....................................         2  .  50 

3  pitmen  @  $1  .  75  .............................         5  .  25 

Total  labor  cost  .....................................   $14  .  75 

Labor  cost  per  cu.  yd.  excavated,  $14.75  -5-  300  =  $0.049 
Fuel: 

\Y2  tons  coal  @  $2.50  ........  '.  .........................         $3  .  75 

Fuel  cost  per  cu.  yd.  excavated,  $3.75  -5-  300  =  $0.0125 
Oil  and  Supplies: 

%  gal.  cylinder  oil  @  42fJ  ..............  .  ........     $0  167 

Y2  gal.  engine  oil  @  38^  ........................       0.  190 

Waste,  packing,  etc  .................  ...........       0  .  273 

Total  cost  of  oils,  etc  .......................  ..........   $0.630 

Cost  of  oil,  waste,  etc.,  per  cu.  yd.,  $0.63  •*•  300  =  $0.0021 


490     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

Overhead  Charges: 

Depreciation  (based  on  20-year  life) $0 . 815 

Interest  @  6  per  cent 0 . 975 

Repairs,  and  incidentals 2 . 000 


Total  cost  of  burden $3 . 79 

Cost  of  burden  per  cu.  yd.  excavated,  $3.79  -f-  300  =  0.0126 

Total  cost  of  operation  per  10-hr,  day $22.92 

Cost  of  operation  per  cu.  yd. excavated,  $22.92  -=-  300  =  $0.0764. 

Rock  Excavation. — The  drilling  and  blasting  gangs  work  to  the 
north  and  south  along  the  face  of  the  open  cut  and  keep  enough 
rock  blasted  down  in  front  of  each  shovel  to  furnish  about  6 
days  work  at  1500  tons  per  day.  The  quarry  face  varies  in  height 
from  30  to  40  ft.  and  the  rock  is  of  quite  uniform  quality  so 
that  only  a  small  amount  of  mud  capping  is  necessary. 


FIG.  194. — Loaded  skips  on  way  to  crusher.     (Compliments  of  Edison  Portland 

Cement  Co.) 

Two  steam  shovels  are  used  for  loading  the  rock,  the  original 
machine  of  70  tons  and  a  recent  acquisition  of  95  tons.  The 
shovels  work  away  from  each  other  and  normally  the  95-ton 
shovel  handles  the  daily  rock  output  while  the  70-ton  machine 
is  held  in  reserve  and  used  when  the  former  is  laid  up  for  repairs 
or  in  case  of  emergency.  The  70-ton  shovel  is  equipped  with 
a  23/2-yd.  dipper  while  the  95-ton  shovel  has  a  3^-yd.  dipper. 
Both  machines  are  operated  by  the  usual  steam  equipment  of 
locomotive  type  boiler,  and  hoist,  swing  and  thrust  engines. 

The  rock  is  loaded  into  4-yd.  steel  skips  which  are  carried  by 
four-wheel  single-truck  flat  cars  of  standard  make  and  gage.    The  • 
cars  are  handled  in  trains  of  about  20  cars  each  by  a  50-ton  dinkey 


QUARRIES,  OPEN-CUT  MINES,  GRAVEL  PITS,  ETC.     491 

engine.  Figure  194  shows  a  loaded  train  being  hauled  to  the 
crusher  house  in  the  distance.  The  length  of  haul  is  about 
three-quarters  of  a  mile. 

The  crew  of  each  shovel  comprises  an  engineer,  a  cranesman, 
a  fireman,  two  jackmen,  a  driller  and  assistant  and  four  pitmen. 
When  either  shovel  is  idle  the  pit  gang  assist  with  the  loading  of 
the  other  shovel,  moving  and  laying  track,  charging  of  blast 
holes,  etc. 

Fuel  and  water  are  supplied  to  the  shovel  as  has  been  pre- 
viously described  for  the  shale  shovel. 

Let  us  consider  the  operation  of  the  70-ton  shovel  and  assume 
the  following  time  analysis. 

Average  time  for  engine  and  twenty  4-yd.  skip  cars  loaded  to 
run  from  quarry  over  about  %  mile  of  standard-gage  track 
to  crusher,  dump  the  skips  and  return  empty  to  pit  is  32 
minutes. 

Minimum  time  to  load  one  car  is  53  sec.,  the  maximum  time  is 
1  min.  7  sec.  and  the  average  time  is  59  seconds.  The  number 
of  dipper  loads  required  for  each  skip  varies  from  two  to  four 
depending  on  amount  of  material  in  the  dipper,  varying  from  40 
to  110  per  cent,  capacity. 

The  average  time  for  one  complete  swing  of  the  dipper  is  25 
seconds.  Average  loading  time  for  train  of  twenty  4-yd.  skip 
cars  is  27  min.  37  seconds.  The  skips  are  loaded  to  about  their 
rated  capacity. 

An  estimate  of  the  cost  of  operation  for  an  average  10-hr,  day 
is  given  below: 


Labor: 

1  engineer $5 . 00 

1  craneman 3 . 75 

1  fireman 2 . 50 

1  driller 2.50 

1  asst.  driller 2.20 

4  pitmen  @$2.00...  .  8.00 


Total  labor  cost $23. 95 

Cost  of  labor  per  cu.  yd.  excavated,  $23.95  -f-  1000  =  $0.0239 

Fuel: 

%}i  tons  coal  ©  $2. 50 $8. 125 

Cost  of  fuel  per  cu.  yd.  excavated,  $8.125  -J-  1000  =  $0.0081 


492      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

Oil  and  Supplies: 

Y2  gal.  lub.  oil  @  42£ $0.210 

%  gal.  engine  oil  @  38^ 0. 285 

1  gal.  black  oil  @  35£ 0.350 

Waste,  packing,  etc., 0 .875 


Total $1 . 720 

Cost  of  oil,  waste,  etc.,  per  cu.  yd.,  $1.72  -=-  1000  =  $0.00172 

Overhead  Charges: 

Depreciation  (based  on  20-year  life) $1 .32 

Interest  @  6  per  cent 1 . 575 

Repairs,  incidentals,  etc 3 . 000 


Total  burden  cost 5 . 895 

Cost  of  burden  per  cu.  yd.  excavated,  $5 . 895  -J-  1000  =  $0 . 0058 

Total  cost  of  operation  for  10-hr,  day  equals $39.69 

Cost  of  operation  per  cu.  yd.,  $39.69  -*•  1000  =    $0.0397 

EXCAVATING  IN  A  WESTERN  CEMENT  QUARRY 

Description  of  Plant  and  Quarry. — The  cement  plant  is  located 
near  a  small  city  in  a  prosperous  agricultural  state  of  the  Middle 
West.  The  topography  of  this  section  of  the  country  is  flat  with 
an  occasional  river  whose  waters  flow  in  a  general  southwesterly 
direction  toward  that  great  drainage  channel,  the  Mississippi 
River.  A  reference  to  Fig.  195  will  show  that  the  plant  is  on  the 
east  side  of  Rapid  River.  The  banks  at  this  point  rise  upward 
from  the  river  with  a  gentle  slope  for  a  distance  of  several  hundred 
feet  and  then  there  is  an  abrupt  rise  of  from  50  to  80  ft.  to  a 
slightly  undulating  area  which  stretches  back  from  the  river 
for  several  miles. 

The  surface  soil  is  a  rich  black  loam,  which  is  underlaid  with 
a  clay  of  excellent  quality.  The  clay  and  loam  have  an  average 
depth  of  about  4  ft.  and  overlie  a  deposit  of  gravel  which  has  a 
thickness  of  from  7  to  12  feet.  Under  the  gravel  is  a  ledge  of 
limestone  which  is  highly  impregnated  with  clay.  Such  is  the 
geological  conditions  existent  over  a  great  area  near  the  plant. 
At  present  the  quarry  consists  of  an  area  of  about  1500  ft.  long- 
and  500  ft.  wide,  which  has  been  opened  up  at  a  distance  of  ^ 
mile  from  the  plant. 

The  plant  has  a  rated  capacity  of  3000  bbl.  of  standard' 
Portland  cement  per  day.  The  dry  mix  method  is  used  and  the 


QUARRIES,  OPEN-CUT  MINES,  GRAVEL  PITS,  ETC.     493 

clay  and  limestone  are  mixed  in  the  proportions  of  one  part  clay 
to  seven  parts  limestone.  These  proportions  are  varied  with  the 
composition  of  the  limestone. 

Figure  195  shows  the  general  layout  of  the  quarry,  the  location 
of  the  excavators,  the  transportation  facilities,  etc.  At  the  north 
end  of  the  quarry  upon  the  highest  level  is  located  the  clay  shovel 
which  removes  the  clay  and  loam  down  to  the  gravel.  To  the 
south,  upon  a  lower  bench  is  the  stripping  shovel,  which  removes 
the  gravel  deposit  down  to  the  surface  of  the  rock.  Two  churn 
drills  operate  along  the  face  of  the  quarry  and  drill  series  of  large 


FIG.   195. — General  plan  of  western  cement  plant. 

holes  about  10  ft.  centers  and  8  ft.  back  from  the  face  for  the 
blasts.  Sufficient  rock  is  blasted  out  to  keep  the  rock  shovel 
busy  for  about  a  week.  The  latter  operates  on  the  floor  of  the 
quarry  along  the  face  which  has  a  height  of  from  30  to  50  feet. 
Following  are  given  detailed  descriptions  of  the  excavation 
of  the  clay  and  rock.  The  stripping  has  been  described  in  the 
first  part  of  this  article  on  page  478. 

Clay  Excavation. — The  clay  is  excavated  with  a  small  revolv- 
ing shovel  which  is  mounted  on  a  truck  with  four  broad-tired 
iron  wheels.  The  latter  rest  upon  heavy  planks  over  which  the 
shovel  may  move  under  its  own  power.  The  machine  is  equip- 
ped with  a  y±  yd.  dipper,  which  can  be  thrust  into  the  bank  by 
a  special  crowding  device*  The  operating  mechanism  consists  of 


494     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

a  hoisting  engine,  a  swinging  engine  and  a  small  engine  for 
operating  the  crowding  device.  A  vertical  boiler  supplies  steam 
at  125  Ib.  pressure  for  all  the  power  equipment. 

The  crew  consists  of  an  engineer,  who  has  general  charge  of  the 
work  and  personally  operates  the  shovel,  a  fireman,  and  a  laborer 
for  general  service  in  the  pit,  loading  coal  and  making  repairs. 

Southern  Illinois  soft  coal  of  nut  size  is  used  for  fuel.  The 
coal  is  shipped  into  the  plant  in  gondola  cars  of  50  tons  capacity. 
A  locomotive  crane,  equipped  with  a  clam-shell  bucket,  transfers 
the  coal  to  the  5-yd.  side-dump  clay  cars  which  carry  it  out  to  the 
shovel  as  it  is  used. 

Water  is  supplied  through  a  2-in.  cast-iron  pipe,  which  is  a 
branch  of  a  6-in.  cast-iron  supply  main  from  the  power  plant. 
All  the  water  used  to  supply  the  steam  shovels  and  drills  is 
pumped  from  the  river  into  a  large  patent  water  softener.  Here 
the  water  is  treated  with  lime  and  aluminum  sulphate  and 
filtered.  From  the  filter  the  water  passes  into  a  sump  or  pit, 
from  which  it  is  pumped  through  the  6-in.  main  to  the  quarry. 
Water  thus  purified  is  used  in  the  entire  plant  and  no  record  is 
kept  of  the  amount  treated  and  used. 

The  shovel  loads  6-yd.  side-dump  cars  in  trains  of  four  cars  each. 
Each  train  is  hauled  by  a  dinkey  locomotive  of  standard  make. 

Let  us  assume  the  following  time  analysis  of  the  loading  opera- 
tions. 

Average  time  for  engine  and  four  6-yd.  cars  loaded  to  run  from 
clajr  pit  over  about  %  mile  of  standard-gage  track  to  dry  house, 
dump  the  clay  and  return  empty  to  pit  is  40  minutes. 

Average  time  to  load  a  6-yd.  side-dump  car  is  8  min.  20  seconds. 
Number  of  dipper  loads  to  fill  one  car  is  10.  The  average  time  for 
shovel  to  commence  excavation  in  pit,  fill  dipper,  swing  over  to  car, 
dump,  swing  back  and  drop  dipper  into  pit  is  42  seconds.  Average 
loading  time  for  train  of  four  6-yd.  cars  is  3  minutes.  The  cars 
are  loaded  to  about  120  per  cent,  of  rated  capacity. 

The  following  is  an  estimate  of  the  cost  of  operation  for  a  10- 
hr,  day  under  average  working  conditions : 

Labor: 

1  engineer $3 . 50 

1  fireman » •  •  • 2 . 00 

1  pitman 2.00 

Total  labor  cost $7-50 

Labor  cost  per  cu.  yd.  excavated,  $7.50-5-  120  =  $0.0625 


QUARRIES,  OPEN-CUT  MINES,  GRAVEL  PITS,  ETC.     495 

Fuel: 

}4  ton  nut  coal $1 . 50 

Fuel  cost  per  cu.  yd.  excavated,  $1.50  •*•  120  =  $0.0125 

Oil  and  Supplies: 

K  gal.  cylinder  oil  @  400 $0. 067 

Ko  gal.  engine  oil  @  30^ 0.030 

Waste,  packing,  etc 0 . 120 


Total  cost  oil,  waste $0.217 

Cost  of  oil,  waste,  per  cu.  yd.  excavated,  $0.217  -J-  120  =  $0.0018 

Overhead  Charges: 

Depreciation  (based  on  20-year  life) $0. 70 

Interest  @  6  per  cent 0. 84 

Repairs  and  incidentals 1 . 00 


Total  burden $2 . 54 

Cost  of  burden  per  cu.  yd.  excavated,          $2.54  -i-  120  =  $0.0212 

Total  cost  of  operation  per  10-hr,  day $11 . 757 

Cost  of  operation  per  cu.  yd.  excavated,  $11 . 757  +  120  =  $0 . 098 

Rock  Excavation. — The  rock  is  blasted  down  in  masses  of  about 
3000  cu.  yd.  which  extend  for  a  distance  of  from  30  to  50  ft. 
along  the  quarry  face.  This  rock  is  largely  of  a  size  which  can  be 
handled  by  the  shovel,  but  large  masses  of  rock  are  prevalent 
and  are  broken  up  by  "block  holing"  using  Jap  hand  drills  and 
40  per  cent,  forcite. 

The  steam  shovel  used  for  loading  the  rock  is  o£  a  well-known 
make,  95-ton  size  and  equipped  with  a  3-yd.  dipper.  A  locomo- 
tive type  of  boiler  furnishes  steam  at  125  Ib.  pressure  to  the 
power  equipment.  The  swinging  and  hoisting  motions  are 
controlled  by  chains  and  the  dipper  is  provided  with  heavy  man- 
ganese steel  teeth. 

The  rock  is  loaded  into  wooden  box  cars  of  6  yd.  capacity  and 
mounted  on  four-wheel,  single-truck  standard-gage  frames.  The 
cars  are  hauled  in  trains  of  from  5  to  10  cars  each,  by  a  dinkey 
engine.  The  distance  from  the  shovel  to  the  crusher  house 
is  about  %  mile.  The  cars  when  loaded  with  rock,  average  9 
tons  in  net  weight. 

The  crew  of  the  shovel  comprises  an  engineer,  a  craneman,  a 
fireman,  two  jackmen,  a  driller  and  assistant  and  four  pitmen. 
The  size  of  the  crew  depends  largely  upon  the  condition  of  the 
labor  market  and  will  vary  from  7  to  10  men  with  a  general 
average  of  9  men. 


496      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

Fuel  and  water  are  supplied  to  the  shovel  as  has  been  described 
above  in  the  case  of  the  clay  shovel. 

Let  us  assume  a  time  analysis  of  tlie  loading  operations  as 
follows. 

Average  time  for  engine  and  ten  6-yd.  cars  loaded  to  run  from 
quarry  over  about  ^  mile  of  standard-gage  track  to  crusher, 
dump  the  rock  and  return  empty  to  pit  is  24  minutes. 


FIG.   196. — Steam  shovel  loading  train  of  box  cars. 


Minimum  time  required  to  load  a  6-yd.  car  is  1  min.  20  sec. 
and  the  maximum  time  is  2  min.  5  seconds.  Three  or  four  dip- 
perfulls  are  required  to  load  each  car,  depending  on  quantity 
in  dipper,  varying  from  50  to  110  per- cent,  capacity. 

The  average  time  for  shovel  to  commence  excavation  in  pit, 
fill  dipper,  swing  over  to  car,  dump,  swing  back,  and  drop  dipper 
into  pit  is  30  seconds.  The  minimum  time  is  22  sec.  and  the  maxi- 
mum time  45  seconds.  Average  loading  time  for  train  of  ten 
6-yd.  cars  is  18  min.  40  seconds.  The  cars  are  loaded  to  about 
their  rated  capacity. 

Figure  196  shows  the  shovel  loadjng  a  train  of  cars. 


QUARRIES,  OPEN-CUT  MINES,  GRAVEL  PITS,  ETC.     497 

The  following  is  an  estimate  of  the  cost  of  operation  for  an 
average  10-hr,  working  day: 

Labor: 

engineer $5 . 00 

fireman 3 . 60 

craneman 2 . 20 

driller ! 2.50 

asst.  driller 2. 25 

4  pitmen  @  $1.75 7.00 


Total  lahor  cost ...     $22 . 55 

Cost  of  labor  per  cu.  yd.  excavated,  $22.55  -5-  600  =  $0  0376 

Fuel: 

4  tons  nut  coal  @$3.00 $12.00 

Cost  of  fuel  per  cu.  yd.  excavated,  $12.00  -^  600  =  $0  020 

Oil  and  Supplies: 

%  gal.  lub.  oil  @  40f< $0.267 

1  gal.  engine  oil  @  36^ 0 . 360 

1  gal.  black  oil  @  35^ 0.350 

Waste,  packing,  etc., 1 .000 


$1.977 
Cost  of  oil,  waste,  etc.,  per  cu.  yd.,  $1.977  +  600  =  $0.0033 

Overhead  Charges: 

Depreciation  (based  on  20- year  life) $2.85 

Interest  @  6  per  cent 3 . 42 

Repairs,  incidentals,  etc 3 . 50 


Total  cost  of  burden '. $9.77 

Total  cost  of  operation  per  10-hr,  day $46. 297 

Cost  of  operation  per  cu.  yd.  excavated,  $46.297  -^  600  =  $0.077 

The  data  of  steam-shovel  operation  shows  a  wide  variation  as 
to  operating  efficiency  and  results.  It  is  clearly  impossible  to 
lay  down  any  fixed  rule  which  may  be  used  to  determine  the 
output  of  a  shovel.  In  a  cement  quarry  the  shovel  rarely  works 
to  full  capacity,  as  the  output  required  is  generally  much  less 
than  the  shovel  can  handle.  Ordinarily  a  shovel  will  be  in  actual 
operation  about  40  per  cent,  of  the  time.  Some  of  the  conditions 
affecting  steam-shovel  performance  are:  hardness  of  the  rock; 
amount  and  nature  of  stripping;  amount,  area  and  depth  of  seams 
in  rock;  height  of  face;  method  of  drilling  and  blasting;  size,  make 
and  capacity  of  shovel;  style,  weight,  capacity,  height  and  length 
of  cars;  number  of  cars  in  train;  length  of  haul,  style,  size  and 

32 


498     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

power  .of  locomotives;  weight  of  rail;  and  condition  and  gage  of 
track;  labor  equipment  to  operate  machinery;  character  of  water 
and  fuel;  hours  worked  per  day;  wage  system  employed;  amount 
of  rock  breaking  necessary;  management  of  quarry  and  plant; 
etc.  Several  cases  of  shovel  operation  give  10  to  78  per  cent, 
actual  loading  time,  10  to  72  per  cent,  waiting  for  cars,  5  to  60 
per  cent,  delays  due  to  mud  capping,  repairs,  etc.  An  efficient 
shovel  operation  should  result  in  the  following  log: 

Per  cent. 

Moving  shovel 10 

Waiting  for  cars. 15 

Breaking  up  rock 10 

Repairs 5 

.Actual  loading  cars 60 


Total 100 

352.  Open-cut  Mining. — A  class  of  excavation  which  has  been 
greatly  developed  in  recent  years,  and  which  has  made  possible 
the  opening  of  great  ore  and  coal  deposits  on  an  economic  scale, 
is  the  stripping  of  the  overlying  material  from  seams  of  ore 
and  coal.  The  enlargement  and  improvement  of  the  steam 
shovel  and  drag-line  excavator  have  been  important  factors  in 
this  new  development  work. 

The  method  of  stripping  and  mining  a  typical  open-cut  mine  is 
simple  and  economical.  The  stripping  shovel,  which  is  generally 
of  the  revolving  type  and  of  large  capacity  makes  a  series  of  par- 
allel cuts.  The  material  from  the  first  cut  is  piled  on  the  sur- 
face along  the  edge  of  the  cut.  The  ore  or  coal  shovel,  generally 
of  smaller  capacity,  follows  along  behind  the  stripping  machine. 
On  the  next  cut  the  big  shovel  deposits  its  spoil  in  the  pit  made 
by  the  first  cut,  and  that  from  the  third  cut  into  the  pit  made 
by  the  second  cut  and  so  on.  Thus  the  transportation  cost  of 
the  removal  of  the  overburden  is  eliminated. 

In  many  mines,  the  dip  of  the  ore  seams,  the  depth  of  cut, 
the  presence  of  " horsebacks"  and  other  local  conditions,  nec- 
essitate the  removal  of  the  overburden  to  a  distant  dump. 
For  this  purpose  trains  of  dump  cars  and  dinkey  locomotives 
are  used;  the  size  of  car  and  length  of  train  depending  on  the  size 
of  excavator,  depth  of  cut,  length  of  haul,  etc. 

In  coal  mining,  where  the  depth  of  cut  is  over  30  ft., 'and  in 
ca*ses  where  "horsebacks"  frequently  occur,  a  new  method  of 


QUARRIES,' OPEN-CUT  MINES,  GRAVEL  PITS,  ETC.     499 

handling  the  dump  cars  has  been  successfully  developed.  A  stiff 
leg  derrick  or  a  drag-line  excavator  is  mounted  on  rails  at  the  head 
of  the  cut  on  the  coal  and  transfers  the  cars  from  the  loading 
track  along  the  side  of  the  cut  to  the  floor  of  the  pit  where  they 
are  loaded  by  hand,  and  then  are  lifted  back  to  the  track.  This, 
method  provides  for  the  taking  out  of  deep  cuts  in  several  "lifts" 
and  also  for  the  digging  around  of  " horsebacks."  Figure  197 


FIG.  197. — Loading  coal  with  locomotive  crane. 

Engineer.) 


(Courtesy  of  The  Excavating 


gives  a  diagrammatic  view  of  a  drag-line  excavator  operating 
in  a  coal  pit  with  a  50-ft.  cut.  This  same  method  could  be  more 
economically  utilized  in  deep  cuts  with  a  small  power  shovel  for 
the  excavation  of  the  coal,  in  place  of  hand  labor. 

353.  Use  of  Power  Shovels  in  Kansas. — In  1911,  in  south- 
western Kansas,  near  Pittsburg,  began  the  development  of  the 
large  fields  of  a  good  quality  of  bituminous  coal.  This  section 
has  not  been  previously  developed  on  account  of  the  inaccessi- 


500     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS     ] 

bility  of  the  coal  which  lay  in  nearly  horizontal  veins  of  from  18 
in.  to  48  in.  in  thickness  and  at  depths  of  from  8  ft.  to  200ft.  below 
the  surface.  The  deep  coal,  lying  from  40  ft.  to  200  ft.  below  the 
surface  has  been  mined  for  many  years  by  the  underground 
method  of  sinking  shafts  and  drifting  into  the  coal.  The  attempts 
to  strip  the  overburden  by  hand,  teams  and  scrapers,  during 
the  last  20  odd  years  (1895-1918),  have  not  been  very  suc- 
cessful on  account  of  the  excessive  costs;  varying  from  13  cents 
to  18  cents  per  cubic  yard.  At  depths  greater  than  15  ft.,  the  cost 
per  ton  of  coal  uncovered  became  prohibitory. 

The  development  of  this  field  was  made  possible  by  the  in- 
troduction of  revolving  steam  shovels  of  large  capacity.     The 


FIG.   198. — Large  revolving  shovel  stripping  coal  field.     (Courtesy  of  The  Ex- 
cavating Engineer.) 

first  three  machines  were  built  by  the  Vulcan  Steam  Shovel 
Company  of  Toledo,  Ohio  and  installed  in  the  Spring  of  1911. 
Since  that  time  about  20  additional  steam  shovels  have  been 
introduced  and  used  in  these  fields.  These  shovels  are  all  of  the 
revolving  type  and  vary  in  size  from  150  tons  to  270  tons.  The 
150-ton  machine  is  equipped  with  a  60-ft.  boom  and  a  2^-yd. 
dipper  and  has  a  capacity  of  1800  cu.  yd.  per  day  of  9  hours. 
The  185-ton  shovel  has  a  75-ft.  boom,  a  3>^-yd.  dipper  and  a 
capacity  of  2300  cu.  yd.  per  working  day  of  9  hours.  The  270- 
ton  machine  has  an  80-ft.  boom,  an  8-yd.  dipper  and  an  average 
output  of  3500  cu.  yd.  per  day.  The  average  cost  of  excavation 
in  typical  overburden  of  loam,  clay,  shale  or  soapstone  and  at  a. 
depth  of  from  10  ft.  to  30  ft.  varies  from  2.3  cents  to  3.6  cents 
per  cubic  yard. 


QUARRIES,  OPEN-CUT  MINES,  GRAVEL  PITS,  ETC.     501 

The  coal  in  3  ft.  strata  will  average  4000  tons  to  the  acre, 
allowing  10  per  cent,  for  ''horsebacks."  The  coal  will  average 
about  a  ton  for  every  square  yard  of  surface  uncovered.  The 
hand  loading  of  coal  into  the  tram  cars  has  been  to  some  extent 
superseded  by  the  use  of  revolving  steam  shovels  of  small  size. 
A  %-yd.  revolving  shovel  of  18  tons  weight,  operated  by  four 
men,  two  on  the  machine  and  two  in  the  pit,  averaged  160  tons 
of  coal  per  day.  A  shovel  of  30  tons  weight  and  equipped  with 
a  1^-yd.  dipper  makes  a  cut  of  40  ft.  in  width,  and  has  an  average 
output  of  about  400  cu.  yd.  per  9-hr,  working  day. 

Figure  198  shows  a  175-ton  shovel  stripping  a  field  near  Pittsburg, 
Kansas. 


FIG.  199. — Steam    shovel    excavating    iron    ore    in    Minnesota.      (Courtesy    of 

The  Bucyrus  Co.) 

354.  Use  of  Steam  Shovel  in  Iron  Mines  in  Minnesota.1 — A 
study  of  the  operation  of  a  90-ton  Bucyrus  steam  shovel  was  made 
on  September  5,  1910  at  the  Oliver  Iron  Mining  Company's 
mine  near  Chisholm,  Minn.  The  work  consisted  of  the  removal 
of  a  stock  pile  of  ore,  35  ft.  high. 

The  equipment  consisted  of  the  90-ton  steam  shovel,  equipped 
with  a  3^-yd.  dipper  and  material  trains  of  50-yd.  steel  and 
35-yd.  wooden  cars.  The  labor  crew  operating  the  shovel  con- 
sisted of  a  runner,  a  craneman,  a  fireman,  6  pitmen  and  a  trim- 

1  Abstracted  from  Handbook  of  Steam  Shovel  Work,  Construction  Serv- 
ice Commpany,  New  York. 


502      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

mer.  The  cars  were  loaded  by  the  shovel,  the  dipper  being 
loaded  by  hand  with  such  pieces  as  do  not  readily  pick  up. 
The  pitmen  also  watch  the  loading  to  remove  rock  which  may 
get  into  the  cars  during  the  loading.  The  shovel  is  kept  busy 
by  spotting  a  train  of  empties  at  the  pit  when  the  loaded  train 
pulls  out. 

The  shovel  loaded  sixty-four  50-ton  and  thirteen  35-ton  cars 
with  3655  tons  or  1828  cu.  yd.  of  ore  in  an  actual  working  time 
of  6  hr.  42  min.  and  5  seconds.  Of  this  time,  69.3  per  cent. 


FIG.  200. — Atlantic    type    steam    shovel    excavating    iron    ore.     (Courtesy    of 

The  Bucyrus  Co.) 

was  spent  in  actual  operation  of  the  shovel,  19.3  per  cent,  in  wait- 
ing for  cars,  6.7  per  cent,  in  moving  shovel  and  4.7  per  cent,  in 
miscellaneous  delays.  The  following  is  the  cost  of  operation 
for  labor,  based  on  the  assumed  standard  basis  of  the  Construc- 
tion Service  Company. 

Per  10-hr.day 

1  runner $5.00 

1  craneman 3 . 60 

1  fireman ........ 2 . 40 

6  pitmen  @  $1 .50 9.00 

1  trimmer. . .  1 . 50 


Total $21.50 

Total  output  in  6  hr.,  42  min.,  5  sec 1828  cu.  yd.. 

Total  output  in  10  hr 2728  cu.  yd. 

Labor  cost,  $21.50  -f-  2728  =  $0.79  per  cu.  yd. 


QUARRIES,  OPEN-CUT  MINES,  GRAVEL  PITS,  ETC.     503 

Figure  199  shows  a  90-ton  shovel  and  Fig.  200  an  Atlantic  type 
shovel  excavating  iron  ore  in  Minnesota. 

355.  Use  of  Drag-line  Excavators  in  Michigan.1 — Since  1913, 
open-cut  methods  have  been  successfully  used  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Balkan  iron  mine  on  the  Menominee  Range  near 
Alpha,  Michigan. 

The  overburden  varies  in  depth  from  60  ft.  to  100  ft.,  15  ft. 
on  the  north  end  and  80  ft.  on  the  south  end  being  of  a  treach- 
erous quicksand  formation.  The  conditions  rendered  the  use 
of  steam  shovels  impracticable  and  led  to  the  employment  of  two 
drag-line  excavators;  one  a  Bucyrus  Class  24  machine  equipped 
with  an  85-ft.  boom  and  a  4J^-yd.  bucket  and  the  other  a  Marion 
Model  261  of  the  same  size.  These  machines  moved  over  runways 
composed  of  4  in.  X  12  in.  planks  12  ft.  long  laid  four  wide  on 
each  side  of  the  machine. 

The  stripping  was  done  in  the  form  of  a  pit  oval  in  shape  about 
1200  ft.  long,  700  ft.  wide  and  a  depth  of  from  87  ft.  to  107  feet. 
The  work  was  done  by  the  machines  working  downward  on  spiral 
benches  on  opposite  sides  of  the  pit,  and  generally  on  different 
levels.  The  quicksand  was  drained  by  sinking  a  sump  at  each 
lift  and  pumping  out  the  water.  By  thus  draining  out  the  quick- 
sand to  a  depth  of  from  3  ft.  to  4  ft.,  a  suitable  and  stable  founda- 
tion was  furnished  for  the  drag-line  excavators. 

The  material  was  removed  by  trains  of  4-yd.  dump  cars  on  an 
inclined  grade  of  about  2.6  per  cent.  The  equipment  was  narrow 
gage  and  the  cars  were  loaded  through  hoppers.  The  total 
haul  from  bottom  of  pit  to  dump  was  5650  feet. 

The  output  of  the  two  drag-lines  for  the  season  of  1914  was 
896,421  cubic  yards.  The  best  monthly  record  was  207,184 
cu.  yd.  and  the  best  daily  record  was  2670  4-yd.  cars  for  two 
10-hr,  shifts  for  two  machines  and  800  4-ydTcars  for  one  10-hr, 
shift  for  one  machine. 

356.  Excavation  of  Sand  and  Gravel  Pits. — The  recent  develop- 
ment of  large  sand  and  gravel  deposits  has  led  to  the  use  of  power 
machinery  in  place  of  the  hand  and  scraper  methods  of  former 
times.     The  smaller  pits  do  not  justify  the  large  initial  expense 
of  a  power  equipment  and  should  be  operated  by  simple,  inex- 
pensive methods. 

Probably  the  most  common  method  of  excavating  sand  and 
gravel  pits  is  by  the  use  of  one  or  more  power  shovels,  either 
1  Abstracted  from  The  Excavating  Engineer,  August,  1915. 


504     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

of  the  revolving  type  filling  dump  wagons  or  cars  for  the  smaller 
pits  or  of  the  fixed-platform  type  operating  on  tracks  and  loading 
trains  of  dump  or  hopper  cars.  The  use  of  specially  designed 
hopper  cars  is  often  desirable.  See  Art.  358.  Two  shovels  are 
sometimes  used  coordinately  to  facilitate  the  opening  up  of  deep 
cuts. 

Recently,  the  great  demand  for  sand  and  gravel  for  road 
building  and  concrete  has  led  to  the  development  of  a  large  num- 
ber of  pits  of  moderate  size.  The  most  efficient  plant  for  such 
a  deposit  is  a  combination  excavation,  washing  and  screening 
equipment  which  uses  the  drag-line  cableway  for  the  excavation, 


FIG.  201. — Diagrammatic  view  of  cableway  operating  gravel  plant.     (Courtesy 
of  Raymond  W.  Dull  Co.) 

conveyance  and  elevation  of  the  material.  The  adaptability, 
wide  range  of  operation,  simplicity  of  construction  and  operation 
and  low  cost  of  operation  make  this  type  of  excavator  a  very 
economical  one  for  this  class  of  work.  A  plant  of  400  cu.  yd. 
capacity  requires  a  force  of  four  or  five  men,  one  engineer,  a  fireman 
and  the  rest  laborers.  The  method  of  operation  of  a  typical  cable- 
way  equipment  for  a  gravel  plant  is  shown  in  Fig.  201.  The  ca- 
pacity of  such  an  excavator  depends  on  the  working  span  and 
depth,  the  size  and  character  of  bucket,  the  efficiency  of  the  op- 
erator, the  nature  and  condition  of  the  material,  etc.,  etc. 
The  machine  is  more  efficient  in  handling  wet  material  than  dry. 
Under  ordinary  working  conditions,  a  1-yd.  machine  should 
excavate  from  200  cu.  yd.  to  250  cu.  yd.  and  a  1^-yd.  machine* 
from  350  cu.  yd.  to  400  cu.  yd.  per  10-hr,  day. 


QUARRIES,  OPEN-CUT  MINES,  GRAVEL  PITS,  ETC.     505 


Figure  202  shows  a  typical  plant  in  operation. 
The  following  are  recommended  sizes  of  operating  equipment 
for  drag-line  cableway  excavators.1 


Capacity  of  bucket,  : 
cu.  yd. 

Double-drum  skeleton 
hoisting  engine 

Diameter  of 
front  drum,  in. 

Boiler 
capacity,  100 
Ib.  pressure 

K 

8J4  X  10  or  equivalent 

20 

30 

i 

9       X  10  or  equivalent 

24 

40 

W 

10    X  12  or  equivalenr 

26 

60 

FIG.  202. — Cableway 


;xcavator  operating  a  gravel  pit. 
W.  Dull  Co.) 


(Courtesy  of  Raymond 


357.  Use  of  Steam  Shovel  in  Gravel  Pit  in  Illinois.2— The  plant 
of  the  Chicago  Gravel  Company  at  Rockdale,  Illinois  uses  a  large 
revolving  shovel  for  the  excavation  of  the  gravel.  This  plant  is 
one  of  the  largest  of  its  kind  in  the  world  and  has  an  equipment  of 
crushing,  conveying,  screening  and  washing  machinery  of  un- 
usual design. 


1  From  Engineering  Record,  June  5,  1915. 

2  Abstracted  from  The  Excavating  Engineer,  September,  1914. 


506      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

The  earlier  equipment  of  the  plant  comprised  a  Bucyrus  65- 
ton  shovel,  an  Atlantic  type  Class  45  shovel,  and  two  70-ton 
Victor  shovels  equipped  with  2%-yd.  dippers.  The  two  former 
machines  wer*e  used  for  loading  gravel  but  have  been  recently 
superseded  by  a  large  revolving  shovel.  The  regular  fixed-plat- 
form shovels  did  not  prove  to  be  satisfactory  on  account  of  the 
difficulty  of  handling  the  maximum  face  of  banks  occasionally 
encountered,  and  of  maintaining  a  suitable  loading  track.  Hence 
in  order  to  eliminate  these  troubles  and  to  reduce  the  labor 
expense  for  pitmen,  a  large  revolving  type  of  shovel,  a  Bucyrus 
175-ton  type  B,  machine  was  introduced  in  1914.  This  shovel  is 


FIG.  203.  —  Large    revolving    shovel    operating    gravel    pit.     (Courtesy    of    The 
Excavating  Engineer.) 


equipped  with  a  75-ft.  boom,  a  48-ft.  dipper  handle  and  a 
dipper.  The  machine  can  excavate  directly  a  cut  having  a  face 
height  of  61  ft.  and  can  remove  a  100-ft.  face  by  under-cutting 
and  allowing  the  upper  section  to  fall  into  the  dipper.  The 
machine  has  a  dump  height  of  52  ft.,  and  can  cut  a  level  floor 
to  a  maximum  width  of  112  feet.  The  average  output  of  the 
shovel  is  2000  cu.  yd.  per  10-hr,  working  day.  Figure  203  shows 
the  shovel  loading  Rogers  ballast  cars  of  40  cu.  yd.  capacity. 

358.  Use  of  Steam  Shovels  in  Sand  Pit  in  Wisconsin.1— 
An  efficiently  operated  sand  plant  is  that  of  the  Atwood  Davis 
Sand  Company  near  Beloit,  Wisconsin.  Two  special  schemes. 
are  used  in  this  plant  to  meet  the  peculiar  requirements  of  local 

1  Abstracted  from  The  Excavating  Engineer,  August,  1915. 


QUARRIES,  OPEN-CUT  MINES,  GRAVEL  PITS,  ETC.     507 

conditions.  First,  the  construction  of  a  through-cut,  38  ft. 
deep,  140  ft.  wide  on  top  and  55  ft.  wide  on  bottom,  was  affected 
by  using  two  shovels  operating  coordinately.  An  18B  Bucyrus 
revolving  shovel  with  a  %-yd.  dipper  commences  the  cut,  excavat- 
ing to  a  depth  of  about  25  feet.  This  machine  moves  over  three 
timber  floats  5^  ft.  wide  and  14  ft.  6  in.  long.  The  revolving  shovel 
is  followed  by  a  70-ton  Vulcan  shovel  of  the  fixed-platform  type 
equipped  with  a  3-yd.  dipper.  The  shovels  are  so  arranged  as  to 
load  a  hopper  car  simultaneously.  The  loading  time  averages 
about  2J^  min.  per  car,  and  two  cars  are  hauled  by  one  55- 


FIG.  204. — Hopper  car  discharging  on  to  belt  conveyor  at  a  sand  plant.    (Courtesy 
of  The  Excavating  Engineer.)  . 

ton  locomotive.  Each  car  has  a  capacity  of  about  22  cu.  yd. 
and  the  round  trip  is  made  in  about  8  minutes. 

The  hopper  cars  were  especially  designed  for  this  plant  to  pro- 
vide for  the  direct  delivery  of  the  material  to  a  belt  conveyor, 
which  directly  supplies  the  preliminary  crushers.  Figure  204 
shows  a  hopper  car  discharging  on  the  outer  end  of  the  conveyor. 

The  average  daily  output  is  about  45  cars  or  1350  cu.  yd.  per 
10-hr,  day.  This  has  been  increased  to  55  cars  or  1600  cu.  yd. 
on  occasions.  The  revolving  shovel  overcasts  in  front  of  the 
larger  machine  during  delays  caused  by  waiting  for  cars,  etc. 

359.  Excavation  of  Clay  and  Shale  Pits. — The  operation  of 
clay  products  plants  has  undergone  marked  changes  in  recent 
years  due  to  the  rapid  development  of  the  ceramic  industry. 


508      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

The  great  demand  for  brick  and  tile  for  building,  road 
building  and  agricultural  purposes  has  led  to  the  increase  in 
size  and  efficiency  of  operation  of  the  older  plants  and  the 
opening  up  of  many  new  plants.  The  original,  crude,  hand 
methods  of  excavating  and  handling  the  clay  have  been  largely 
replaced,  especially  in  the  larger  plants,  by  the  use  of  power 
excavators  operated  in  a  systematic 'manner. 

The  power  shovel  and  the  drag-line  excavator  are  the  two  types 
of  machinery  which  have  been  generally  used  and  are  especially 
adapted  to  this  class  of  work.  The  location  of  the  pit,  the  con- 
dition of  the  material,  method  of  transportation  of  the  material, 
the  mixing  of  the  clay,  etc.,  are  all  important  factors  in  the  de- 
termination of  the  proper  type  of  machine  to  be  used.  If  the 
pit  is  located  on  Jow  land  and  subject  to  periodic  flooding,  a 
drag-line  excavator  which  can  operate  from  higher  ground  is  the 
most  practical  machine  to  use. 

When  there  is  considerable  variation  in  the  clay  or  shale  and 
mixing  is  necessary,  the  use  of  a  broad,  open  dipper  on  a  shovel 
may  effectively  serve  the  purpose.  The  dipper  is  run  through 
the  bank  with  the  door  open,  thus  slicing  up  the  clay  and  allow- 
ing it  to  collect  in  a  loose  pile  at  the  bottom  of  the  bank.  When 
the  entire  face  has  been  cut  over  once,  the  loose  material  is  picked 
up  and  allowed  to  pass  through  the  dipper.  This  process  is  done 
once  or  twice,  as  may  be  necessary  to  secure  a  uniform  mixture. 

The  use  of  a  long-handled  dipper  with  a  crowding  device  is 
desirable  for  the  excavation  of  the  bank  when  frozen  near  the  top. 
Usually  a  bank  frozen  to  a  depth  of  not  more  than  2  ft.  can  be 
excavated  directly  by  the  shovel,  but  for  greater  depths  of  frost, 
blasting  must  be  resorted  to. 

360.  Use  of  a  Drag-line  Excavator  in  Georgia.1— The  Chero- 
kee Brick  Company  of  Macon,  Georgia,  uses  an  electrically 
operated  drag-line  excavator  for  the  removal  of  the  clay.  The 
excavator  is  equipped  with  a  45-ft.  boom  and  a  1^-yd.  bucket. 
It  is  operated  by  an  electrical  equipment  consisting  of  a  50-h.p. 
hoist  motor  and  a  20-h.p.  swing  motor.  The  former  is  controlled 
by  a  hand-operated  controller  of  the  drum  type.  The  latter  is 
provided  with  a  multiple  solenoid  control  designed  for  automatic 
acceleration  of  the  motor  as  well  as  plugging  resistance  circuit 
breaker  and  a  drum  type  master  controller.  The  main  motor. 

1  Abstracted  from  The  Excavating  Engineer,  August,  1913. 


QUARRIES,  OPEN-CUT  MINES,  GRAVEL  PITS,  ETC.     509 

also  drives  a  compressor,  which  furnishes  air  for  the  operation 
of  the  cylinders  for  the  main  hoisting  gear  and  the  brake  cylinder 
for  the  bucket  tipping  drum  on  the  boom.  Current  is  furnished 
at  550  volts,  three  phase,  and  60  cycle. 

The  clay  pit  consists  of  about  400  acres  located  about 
\Y]>  miles  from  the  plant.  The  drag-line  machine  operates 
from  the  top  of  the  bank  and  cuts  a  face  of  from  12  ft.  to  16  ft. 
in  height.  The  material  is  selected  from  different  strata  for  the 
various  qualities  of  brick.  The  material  is  loaded  on  trains  of 
6-yd.  side-dump  cars.  See  Fig.  205. 


FIG.  205. — Drag-line  excavator  operating  clay  pit. 

Engineer.)  > 


(Courtesy  of  The  Excavating 


The  labor  crew  consists  of  an  operator  and  a  laborer  for  the 
excavator  and  three  men  for  the  track.  The  operating  expense 
in  1913  was  $3.00  per  day  for  the  operator  and  $1.25  per  day  for 
each  laborer.  The  cost  of  electrical  current  ran  about  $80.00 
per  month.  The  output  in  1913  was  sufficient  to  supply  the  ca- 
pacity of  the  plant  for  125,000  brick  per  day. 

361.  Use  of  Revolving  Steam  Shovel  in  North  Dakota.1— 
A  15-ton  revolving  shovel  has  been  used  in  the  excavation  of 
clay  at  the  plant  of  the  Red  River  Valley  Brick  Company  of  Grand 
Forks,  N.  D. 

The  shovel  cut  a  bank  4  to  5  ft.  in  height  and  required  the 
service  of  three  men  for  operation. 

1  Compiled  from  data  furnished  by  the  Thew  Automatic  Shovel  Company. 


510      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 


The  following  statement1  gives  the  cost  of  operation  for  1909, 
1910,  and  1911  and  the  average  cost  for  the  three  years. 

COST  PEE  WORKING  DAY  FOR  SEASON 


1909 

1910 

1911 

Average 

Wages  of  engineer..   .  . 

$2  69 

$3  45 

$3  66 

$3  29 

Wages  of  fireman 

2  11 

2  00 

2  16 

2  09 

Wages  of  one  laborer  

1  68 

2  00 

2  18 

1  96 

Oil  and  waste 

0  12 

0  08 

0  08 

0  09 

Coal  @  $5.  65  per  ton  

1.53 

1.81 

1.65 

1.67 

Water  .      . 

0  08 

0  10 

0  08 

0  09 

Repairs 

0  33 

0  54 

0  29 

Total  cost.. 

$8  21 

$9  77 

$10  35 

$9  48 

Pounds  coal  consumed  daily.  . 

565 

643 

597 

602 

Gallons  water  consumed  daily 

486 

639 

489 

538 

Cubic  yards  clay  used  daily. 

197 

320 

273 

264 

Number  bricks  made  daily.  .  . 

90,000 

144,000 

124,000 

120,000 

Cost  loading  clay  per  M  

0.09 

0.07 

0.084 

0.082 

Cost  loading  clay  per  yard  .  .  . 

0.04 

0.03 

0.038 

0.036 

Cost  shovel  repairs  per  yard. 

None 

0.0009 

0.0019 

0.0009 

362.  Resume. — The  development  of  a  quarry,  open-cut  mine, 
gravel,  sand  or  clay  pit  of  large  size  involves  the  efficient  and  eco- 
nomic use  of  excavating  machinery.  The  selection  of  the  proper 
type  of  excavator  and  its  method  of  operation  and  coordination 
with  the  other  processes  of  a  plant  depend  on  the  size  and  out- 
put of  plant,  the  character,  location  and  condition  of  the  material 
to  be  excavated,  the  length  and  manner  of  haul,  the  availability 
and  cost  of  labor  and  fuel,  etc.  On  general  principles,  the  ma- 
chinery should  be  of  such  a  character  as  to  require  a  minimum 
labor  force  and  to  utilize  the  cheapest  source  and  kind  of  power  lo- 
cally available. 

The  opening-up  of  a  quarry,  open-cut  mine  or  pit  should  be  so 
planned  as  to  allow  for  the  future  development  of  the  plant,  to 
utilize  the  output  to  the  best  advantage,  to  maintain  a  minimum 
length  of  haul,  and  to  secure  a  minimum  expense  of  excavation, 
transportation  and  operation  of  plant. 

,  •  « 

1  Furnished  by  the  Thew  Automatic  Shovel  Company,  Lorain,  Ohio. 


QUARRIES,  OPEN-CUT  MINES,  GRAVEL  PITS,  ETC.     511 

The  hard  materials  of  quarries  and  open-cut  mines  must  ordi- 
narily be  blasted  down  before  it  can  be  handled,  and  this  should 
so  be  done  as  to  minimize  the  cost  of  removal  and  loading.  A 
large  amount  of  breaking  up  of  the  material  at  the  foot  of  the 
slope  or  face  necessitates  expensive  delays  in  excavator  operation. 
The  routing  and  operation  of  the  transportation  equipment  is 
another  matter  of  great  importance  so  as  to  cut  down  the  delays 
due  to  waiting  for  cars,  etc.  Empty  cars  should  be  available 
on  the  main  track  or  a  siding  and  "spotted"  under  the  shovel 
dipper  so  as  to  provide  for  continuous  operation.  Some  types 
of  machinery  such  as  the  drag-line  excavator  can  "spot"  its  own 
cars  by  the  use  of  the  bucket.  The  type  of  car  to  be  used  de- 
pends on  the  nature  of  the  material  and  the  method  of  dumping. 
A  large  number  of  quarries  and  mines  use  a  revolving  cradle 
dump  above  the  crusher  and  this  requires  the  use  of  a  small  box 
car.  Ordinarily  a  side  dump  car  is  used,  and  the  use  of  com- 
pressed air  for  dumping  has  made  practicable  the  utilization  of 
large  capacity  cars. 

The  moderate-sized  sand  and  gravel  pit  should  be  operated  by  a 
power-operated  excavating,  screening,  and  washing  plant.  The 
drag-line  cableway  excavator  is  the  most  economical  form  of 
machinery  to  use  in  this  class  of  work.  For  large  size  plants, 
it  may  be  found  desirable  to  use  a  steam  shovel  or  drag-line 
machine  of  large  capacity,  either  in  coordination  with  a  cable- 
way  or  independently.  In  the  former  case,  the  cableway  would 
probably  be  used  solely  for  handling  the  excavated  material. 

The  excavation  of  clay  and  shale  pits  requires  a  power  excava- 
tor of  wide  latitude,  flexibility  and  range  of  operation.  The 
revolving  shovel  or  drag-line  machine  are  best  adapted  for  this 
line  of  work.  The  large  capacity  "stripping"  shovel  of  the  re- 
volving type  is  a  very  efficient  and  economical  machine  for  the 
removal  of  clay,  shale  and  other  material  that  can  be  handled 
directly.  The  drag-line  excavator  is  especially  adapted  to 
locations  where  the  low  wet  soil  conditions  necessitate  the  ma- 
chine operating  from  higher  and  more  stable  ground. 

The  author  would  urge  all  plant  managers  and  operators  to 
study  carefully  the  excavation  of  their  raw  material  not  only  to 
secure  the  most  efficient  and  economical  methods  but  to  ensure 
the  proper  coordination  of  this  initial  operation  with  the  other 
operations  of  the  plant. 


512      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

363.  Bibliography. — The  following  references  should  be  con- 
sulted for  further  information: 

Books 

1.  "Handbook    of    Cost    Data,"    by    H.    P.    GILLETTE,    published    by 
McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  New  York.     4  in.  X  6>£   in.,  1854  pages, 
figures.     Cost,  $5.00. 

2.  "Handbook  of  Steam-shovel  Work,"  prepared  for  the  Bucyrus  Com- 
pany of  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  by  the  Construction  Service  Company  of  New 
York,  published  in  1911.     4  in.  X  6>£  in.,   374  pages,  85  figures.     Cost, 
$1.50. 

3.  "Hydraulic  and   Placer   Mining,"  by   E.    B.  WILSON,  published  by 
John  Wiley  &  Sons,  New  York.     5  in.  X  7%  in.,  355  pages,  figures.     Cost, 
$2.25. 

4.  "Rock  Drilling,"  by  DANA  and  SAUNDERS,  published  by  John  Wiley 
&  Sons,  New  York.     6  in.  X  9  in,  319  pages,  127  figures.     Cost,  $4.00. 

Magazine  Articles 

1.  American  Mining  Methods  in  Lapland.     Excavating  Engineer,   Feb- 
ruary, 1914.     Illustrated,  3500  words. 

2.  The   Canal   Fuel   Company's  Coal  Stripping  Plant,  W.  S.  RUSSELL. 
Excavating  Engineer,  February,  1915.     Illustrated,  900  words. 

3.  Coal  Mining  With  Steam  Shovels  in  Southeastern  Kansas.     Kansas 
Engineer,  No.  1.     Illustrated,  3000  words. 

4.  Coal    Stripping   in    Kansas,    W.  S.    RUSSELL.     Excavating  Engineer, 
October,  1913.     Illustrated,  1200  words. 

5.  Coal    Stripping    in    Illinois.     Colliery    Engineer,    September,     1915. 
Illustrated,  2500  words. 

6.  Developing  the  Ray-Consolidated  Copper  Company's  Property  with 
an  Electric  Dragline  Excavator.     Excavating  Engineer,  December,    1916. 
Illustrated,  1000  words. 

7.  Digging  Brick  Clay  with  a  Revolving  Shovel.     Excavating  Engineer, 
May,  1916.     Illustrated,  700  words. 

8.  Digging  Gravel  from  a  River  Bed  by  a  Cableway  Excavator.     Con- 
tractor, August  15,  1916.     Illustrated,  1500  words. 

9.  Digging  Gravel  with  a  Big  Revolving  Shovel.     Excavating  Engineer, 
September,  1914.     Illustrated,  3500  words. 

10.  Digging  Red  Clay  in  Alabama.     Excavating  Engineer,  August,  1913. 
Illustrated,  1000  words. 

11.  Dragline  Cableway  is  An  Effective  Tool  for  Sand  and  Gravel  Plants, 
W.    H.    WILMS.     Engineering   Record,    June    5,    1915.      Illustrated,    3500 
words. 

12.  The  Dragline  Excavator  for  Gravel  Pit  Service  as  Used  by  the 
Badger  Cement  Block  &  Paving  Company.     Excavating  Engineer,  Novem- 
ber, 1912.     Illustrated,  1000  words. 

13.  Dragline  Stripping  and  Mining  Balkan  Mine,  Alpha,  Mich.,  Menq- 
nunce  Range,  Mastodon  District,  C.  E.  LAWRENCE.     Lofce  Superior  Mining 
Institute,  Vol.  XX.     Illustrated,  1200  words. 


QUARRIES,  OP  EN -CUT  MINES,  GRAVEL  PITS,  ETC.     513 

14.  Engineering  Features  of  Steam  Shovel  Work  at  Bingham,   H.  C. 
GOODRICH.     Mining   &  Service    Press,  November   11,    1911.     Illustrated, 
1500  words. 

15.  Grab  System  of  Mining  at  the  Grant  Mine,  Buhl,  Minn.     Iron  Trade 
Review,  March  14,  1907.     3000  words. 

16.  Hydraulic  Stripping  at  Rowe  and  Hillcrest  Mines  on  the  Cuyuna 
Range,  Minnesota,  E.  P.  MCCARTY.     Lake  Superior  Mining  Institute,  Vol. 
XX.     Illustrated,  2500  words. 

17.  J.  R.  Crane  Coal  Company's  Stripping  Plant  at  Scammon,  Kansas. 
Excavating  Engineer,  February,  1917.     Illustrated,  1800  words. 

18.  A  Large  Steam  Shovel.     Engineering,  London,  April  9,   1915.     Il- 
lustrated, 1800  words. 

19.  Large  Steam  Shovel  for  Stripping  Coal  Seams.     Engineering  News, 
April  2,  1914.     Illustrated,  2000  words. 

20.  Laying  Out  and  Blasting  Large  Sections  in  Open  Quarries,  Bruno, 
Zschokke.     Schweizerische   Bauzeitung,    September    7,    1912.     Illustrated, 
2400  words. 

21.  Methods  of  Excavating  Rock  in  Large  Masses,  G.  C.  MCFARLANE. 
Engineering  &  Mining  Journal,  August  3,  1907.     2500  words. 

22.  Mining  Copper  Ore  With  Steam  Shovels,,  S.  A.  PALMER.     Mining 
Magazine,  April,  1911.     Illustrated,  2000  words. 

23.  Mining  Clay  with  Electricity.     Excavating  Engineer,  August,  1913. 
Illustrated,  2000  words. 

24.  Mining  by  Wholesale,  T.  T.  R.     Mining  &  Science  Press,  September 
6,  1913.     Illustrated,  4000  words. 

25.  Mining  Magnetite  by  Steam  Shovel  in  Sweden,  A.  S.  RICE.     Iron 
Trade  Review,  November  27,  1913.     Illustrated,  3000  words. 

26.  A  Modern  Coal  Stripping  Plant  near  Pittsburgh,  Kansas,   W.  S. 
RUSSELL.     Illustrated,  2000  words. 

27.  Modern  Gravel  Excavation.    Excavating  Engineer,  December,  1916. 
Illustrated,  1200  words. 

28.  Modern  Methods  of  Gravel  Excavation,  F.  J.  DENNIS.     Mining  & 
Science  Press,  August  3,  1912.     Illustrated,  3500  words. 

29.  New  Steam  Shovel  for  Mining  Iron  Ore.     Iron  Trade  Review,  June 
1,  1911.     Illustrated,  1200  words. 

30.  The  Plant  of  the  Atwood  Davis  Sand  Company,  Beloit,  Wis.     Ex- 
cavating Engineer,  August,  1915.     Illustrated,  3000  words. 

31.  Plant   of  the   Columbia    Quarry   Company.     Excavating  Engineer, 
September,  1914.     Illustrated,  1000  words. 

32.  Precautions  for   Maximum   Safety  and   Effectiveness  in   Blasting. 
Engineering  News,  September  22,  1910.     Illustrated,  5000  words. 

33.  Quarries  for  Kensico  Dam,  W.  F.  SMITH.     Engineering  News,  August 
10,  1916.     Illustrated,  1800  words. 

34.  Quarrying  at  Rockland  Lake,  H.  L.  HICKS.     Engineering  &  Contract- 
ing, June  7  ,1916.     Illustrated,  1500  words. 

35.  Recent  Developments  in  Open  Cut  Coal  Mining  in  Kansas,  W.  S. 
RUSSELL.    Excavating  Engineer,  April,  1913.     1700  words. 

36.  A  Revolution  in  Stripping  Phosphate  Deposits  near  Mount  Pleasant, 
Tenn.     Excavating  Engineer,  November,  1912.     Illustrated,  1500  words. 

33 


514      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

37.  Sherwood-Lester  Coal  Company's  Coal  Stripping  Plant  near  Liberal, 
Missouri.     Excavating  Engineer,  January,  1917.     Illustrated,  2000  words. 

38.  Slopes  in  Steam  Shovel  Mining,  E.  E.  BARKER.     Mining  &  Science 
Press,  March  4,  1911.     Illustrated,  1200  words. 

39.  The  Star  of  the  Congo  Mine,  Africa.     Excavating  Engineer,  October, 
1914.     Illustrated,  2000  words. 

40.  Steam  Shovel  Operation,  C.   M.  HAIGHT.     Engineering  &  Mining 
Journal,  February  14,  1914.     2200  words. 

41;  Steam  Shovel  Work  on  Mesabi  Range,  A.  H.  FAY.     Engineering  & 
Mining  Journal,  February  25,  1911.     Illustrated,  2500  words. 

42.  Stripping  a  Coal  Deposit  near  Carbon  Hill,  Alabama.     Excavating 
Engineer,  March,  1917.     Illustrated,  2500  words. 

43.  Stripping  a  Gravel  Pit  with  an  Electric  Revolving  Shovel.     Ex- 
cavating Engineer,  June,  1914.     Illustrated,  1000  words. 

44.  Stripping   Anthracite  in   Pennsylvania.     Excavating  Engineer,   De- 
cember, 1913.     Illustrated,  2000  words. 

45.  Stripping  Coal  Beds.     Mines  &  Mining,  September,   1910.     Illus- 
trated, 1800  words. 

46.  The  Stripping  of  Gravel  Pits  by  Hydraulic  Methods,  W.  H.  WILMS. 
Railway  Age  Gazette,  June  18,  1915.     Illustrated,  4500  words. 

47.  Stripping  on  Portland  Pit  Iron  Mine,  Michigan,  P.  B.  MCDONALD. 
Mining  World,  July  22,  1911.     Illustrated,  800  words. 

48.  Stripping  with  Dragline  Excavators,  L.   E.   IVES.     Engineering  & 
Mining  Journal,  November  28,  1914.     Illustrated,  2000  words. 

49.  Stripping  with  Harbor  Dredge,  L.  O.  KELLOGG.    Engineering  &  Mining 
Journal,  March  7,  1914.     Illustrated,  1500  words. 

50.  A  Stripping  Excavator  with  a  Conveyor  to  Form  the  Waste  Banks. 
Engineering  News,  September  12,  1907.     Illustrated,  1200  words. 

51.  Stripping  the  Balkan  Mine  with  Dragline  Excavators.     Excavating 
Engineer,  August,  1915.     2000  words. 

52.  310-Ton    Steam    Shovel.     Engineering,    London,    August    6,    1915. 
Illustrated,  1600  words. 

53.  The  Wallaroo  and  Moonta  Mines,  Australia.     Excavating  Engineer, 
December,  1914.     Illustrated,  1800  words. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
TUNNELS  AND  UNDERGROUND  MINES 

364.  General. — The  use  of  machinery  for  tunneling  and  under- 
ground mining  is  a  recent  practice  which  is  still  largely  in  the  ex- 
perimental and  development  stage.     The  time-honored  and  cus- 
tomary hand  methods  are  still  in  general  use  both  for  the  excava- 
tion of  earth  and  rock.     The  latter  material  must  generally  be 
broken  up  by  drilling  and  blasting  before  it  can  be  handled,  al- 
though shale,  coal  and  other  of  the  loose  rocks  can  often  be  di- 
rectly excavated  by  a  power  machine. 

The  restricted  space  of  a  tunnel  or  underground  chamber 
renders  the  use  of  a  power  machine  difficult  and  relatively  in- 
efficient. However,  in  recent  years  several  types  of  excavators 
for  use  in  tunnel  headings  and  mine  drifts  have  been  devised 
and  used  with  considerable  success.  This  chapter  will  be  de- 
voted to  a  discussion  of  several  of  these  machines,  but  a  lack  of 
space  precludes  any  attention  being  given  to  tunnel  shields, 
channeling  machines,  coal  cutters  and  other  special  types  of 
machinery,  descriptions  of  which  are  given  in  books  on  mining 
and  tunneling. 

365.  Clay  Excavator. — A  machine  for  the  excavation  of  clay, 
stiff  sand  and  similar  soils  has  been  successfully  used  during  the 
past  5  years  (1914-1918),  in  the  construction  of  a  sewer  in  Detroit, 
Michigan,  and  of  the  new  water  tunnel  under  Lake  Erie  at 
Cleveland,  Ohio. 

The  machine  was  devised  by  Charles  Bonnet  of  Port  Huron, 
Michigan  and  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  206.  As  will  be  seen  from  an 
inspection  of  the  cut,  the  essential  feature  of  the  machine  is  a 
horizontal  axis  which  is  directly  operated  by  an  electric  motor 
and  carries  at  its  outer  end  the  excavating  equipment,  consisting 
of  a  boring  knife  and  an  arm  with  a  cutting  tool.  The  latter  is 
mounted  on  an  arm  parallel  to  the  main  arm  and  so  geared  thereto 
that  the  tool  moves  out  along  the  transverse  main  arm  as  the  shaft 
revolves. 

The  excavator  is  mounted  on  a  track  of  rails  or  plank  and  set 
with  the  shaft  on  the  tunnel  axis.  The  plowshare-shaped  knife 

515 


516      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

makes  the  initial  cut  of  15  in.  into  the  center  of  the  heading.  The 
boring  knife  is  then  thrown  out  of  gear  and  the  crossarm  thrown 
into  gear  and  the  cutting  tool  starts  at  the  edge  of  the  cut  made 
by  the  knife.  As  the  arm  revolves,  the  tool  removes  a  slice  of 
material  6  in.  wide  and  6  in.  deep,  progressing  spirally  from  the 
center  hole  to  the  periphery  of  the  tunnel  section.  The  material 
falls  upon  a  belt  conveyor  below  the  shaft,  and  is  carried  back  to  a 
second  conveyor  which  deposits  it  into  dump  cars.  When  'the 
6-in.  cut  has  been  completed  the  shaft  is  thrown  out  of  gear,  the 
car  moved  ahead,  and  the  process  continued. 


FIG.  206. — Bonnet     tunneling     machine.     (Courtesy     of    Engineering     News- 
record.) 

The  weight  of  the  machine  with  a  number  of  jacks  from  the 
tunnel  periphery  to  the  machine  are  generally  sufficient  to  take 
up  the  reaction  of  the  cut. 

366.  Use  of  Bonnet  Excavator  in  Michigan. — The  Bonnet  clay 
excavator  was  used  in  the  construction  of  the  Mount  Elliott 
Avenue  sewer  in  Detroit,  Michigan  in  1914. 

The  excavation  comprised  a  cut  11  ft.  2  in.  in  diameter  and  5- 
000  ft.  long.  The  material  was  a  stiff  blue  clay  with  occasional 
sand  pockets  and  large  boulders.  The  tunnel  was  dug  from  three 
shafts  and  sections  were  dug  by  machine  and  the  ordinary  hand 
labor  method.  The  following  is  a  comparative  statement  of  these 
two  methods: 


TUNNELS  AND  UNDERGROUND  MINES  517 

Cost  per  8-hr,  day 
Hand  Labor: 

6  miners®  $5.50 $33.00 

3  muckers  @  $2 . 75 8 . 25 

3  laborers®  $2.75..  .  8.25 


Total $49.50 

Excavation 8  ft.  per  day 

Cost  of  excavation,  $49.50  -5-  8  =  $6.1875  per  lin.  ft. 

Machine: 

1  machine  operator $4 . 00 

1  knife  operator 3 . 00 

2  muckers  @  $2 . 75 5 . 50 

2  laborers®  $2.75 5.50 


Total $18.00 

Excavation 12  ft.  per  day 

Cost  of  excavation,  $18. 00  +•  12  =  $1.50  perlin.  ft. 

367.  Rock  Excavators. — Rock  excavators  in  tunneling  and 
mining  may  be  considered  in  two  general  classes:  (1),  the  well- 
known  and  universally  used  machines  adapted  to  this  class  of 
work  and  (2),  new  types  of  machines  especially  devised  for  under- 
ground operations. 

The  best  known  type  of  power  excavator  adapted  to  under- 
ground excavation  is  the  power  shovel,  operated  by  compressed 
air  or  by  electricity.  In  tunneling,  small  shovels  have  been  used 
since  1900  on  various  large  projects  and  in  mining  operations 
special  types  are  used  in  the  zinc  mines  at  Joplin,  Missouri,  in 
the  Lake  Superior  region  and  elsewhere.  Such  shovels  are 
specially  adapted  for  low  head  room,  limited  swing,  etc.,  by  the 
use  of  low  A-frames,  short  booms  and  dipper  handles  and 
narrow  car  bodies.  Figure  207  gives  a  diagrammatic  view  of  a 
power  shovel  on  tunnel  excavation. 

The  restricted  area  of  operation  in  tunneling  and  mining  offers 
special  problems  in  trackage,  grades,  handling  the  material, 
etc.,  which  must  be  considered  for  each  case  to  best  satisfy  local 
conditions.  The  most  economical  type  of  power  to  use  depends 
on  the  power  available  at  the  site  or  in  the  mine.  Electric  power 
is  generally  the  cheaper  where  both  are  available,  but  compressed 
air  has  been  generally  used  in  the  past  on  account  of  its  reliability 
and  adaptability.  In  recent  years  only,  has  electric  power  been 
successfully  applied  to  the  operation  of  shovels. 


518     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

368.  Use  of  Air-operated  Shovels  in  Pennsylvania. — Four 
air-operated  shovels  were  used  during  the  summer  of  1915  in  the 
construction  of  the  Woodhill  and  East  Brady  Tunnels  on  the 
Allegheny  Division  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  in  northern 
Pennsylvania.  . 


FIG.  207. — Diagrammatic  view  of  power  shovel  in  tunnel. 

Bucyrus  Co.) 


(Courtesy  of  The 


One  machine  was  used  at  each  end  of  two  tunnel  sections; 
the  Marion  Model  40  being  equipped  with  a  IJ^-yd.  dipper,  and 
the  Bucyrus  40R  having  a  21-ft.  height  of  boom  and  a  1^-yd. 
dipper.  The  material  was  soapstone  and  sandstone  which  crum- 
bled rapidly  when  exposed  to  the  air.  The  top  headings  were 
cut  by  hand,  the  benches  were  blasted  down  and  the  material 
was  loaded  by  the  shovels  into  4-yd.  Western  dump  cars.  The 


TUNNELS  AND  UNDERGROUND  MINES  519 

latter  were  hauled  by  Vulcan  18-ton  locomotives  in  6  car  trains. 
The  material  was  hauled  outside  the  tunnel  and  dumped  along 
the  river  bank. 

The  average  output  was  about  200  cu.  yd.  per  6-hr,  working 
day  per  shovel.  The  shovels  could  operate  on  an  air  pressure  of 
40  Ib.  but  were  most  efficient  when  a  100-lb.  pressure  was  used. 

369.  Use  of  Air-operated  Shovels  on  the  Pennsylvania 
Tunnels,  New  York.1 — The  construction  of  the  Bergen  Hill  Tun- 
nels of  the  North  River  Division  of  the  Pennsylvania  Tunnels 
of  New  York  from  1905  to  1908,  involved  the  use  of  four  air- 
operated  power  shovels.  Except  for  1000  ft.  in  each  tunnel 
at  the  Weehawken  end  where  the  muck  was  loaded  by  hand,  one 
shovel  was  used  at  each  working  face. 

One  shovel  was  a  Marion  Model  20,  weighing  38  tons  and 
equipped  with  a  l^i-yd.  dipper,  and  the  other  three  were  Vulcan 
Little  Giants  of  about  30  tons  weight.  All  shovels  were  opera- 
ted on  standard-gage  track  and  moved  back  from  the  face  of 
heading  300  ft.  to  500  ft.  during  the  blasting. 

The  material  was  largely  a  trap  rock  varying  in  texture  from  a 
very  hard,  fine-grained  rock  at  the  eastern  end  to  a  very  coarse- 
grained, granite-like  material  at  the  Hackensack  portal. 

The  shovels  were  operated  by  three  crews,  two  day  crews  and 
one  night  crew;  the  day  crews  generally  averaged  from  45  to  60 
hr.  over  time  during  the  month.  The  shovels  loaded  wooden 
box  cars  of  60  cu.  ft.  capacity,  and  the  average  load  was  about 
1  cu.  yd.  (place  measurement).  The  cars  were  used  generally 
in  trains  of  four,  hauled  by  12-ton  Vulcan  locomotives. 

The  best  method  of  operation  was  found  to  be  the  making  of  a 
complete  blast  every  36  hr.,  securing  an  advance  of  9  ft.  of 
full  section.  During  the  first  shift,  the  shovel  moved  forward 
and  cleaned  up  the  floor  of  the  tunnel  to  the  main  muck  pile, 
which  was  generally  distributed  for  a  distance  of  from  150  ft. 
to  300  ft.  from  the  working  face  along  the  floor.  During  the  sec- 
ond shift,  the  shovel  removed  a  large  part  of  the  main  muck  pile. 
During  the  third  shift,  the  shovel  completed  the  removal  of  the 
muck.  During  the  second  shift,  the  drillers  mucked  the  heading 
and  set  up  the  drills,  which  were  used  for  drilling  the  lift  holes 
during  the  third  shift. 

The  best  average  output  for  any  one  shovel  was  60  cu.  yd. 
per  shift.  The  maximum  output  was  159  cu.  yd.  per  shift  of 

1  Abstracted  from  Transactions  of  A.  S.  C.  E.}  September,  1910. 


520     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

8  hours.  As  the  shovels  were  generally  idle  for  one  shift  out 
of  three,  the  quantity  actually  handled  averaged  90  cu.  yd.  per 
shift  during  the  working  time.  Figure  208  shows  one  of  the 
shovels  in  operation. 

During  1906,  1907  and  1908,1  four  Marion  Model  20  air-oper- 
ated shovels  and  two  Browning,  15-ton  locomotive  cranes  were 
used  in  the  construction  of  the  Cross-Town  Tunnels,  East  River 
Division  of  the  Pennsylvania  Tunnels  of  New  York. 


FIG.  208. — Power  shovel  operating  in  Bergen  Hills  tunnels.     (Courtesy  of  Marion 

Steam  Shovel  Co.) 


The  shovels  were  operated  on  standard-gage  track  of  40-lb. 
rails,  and  loaded  trains  of  3-yd.  steel  buckets  carried  on  flat  cars. 
The  trains  were  hauled  by  General  Electric,  standard,  10-ton 
mine  locomotives  operated  by  220-volt  current. 

The  material  excavated  was  Hudson  schist  with  occasional 
pockets  of  sand  and  sections  of  disintegrated  rock.  The  presence 
of  large  quantities  of  water  delayed  the  work  at  times  and  re- 
quired heavy  timbering. 

The  progress  made  in  full-sized  twin  tunnel  was  an  average 
of  5.5  ft.  per  day  during  a  period  of  56  working  days  on  one  sec- 
tion of  311  ft.  length  and  of  4.7  ft.  per  day  during  a  period  of  173 
days  on  a  section  of  full-sized  twin  tunnel,  810  ft.  long. 

1  Abstracted  from  Transactions  of  A.  S.  C.  E.,  September,  1910. 


TUNNELS  AND  UNDERGROUND  MINES  521 

370.  Special  Rock  Excavators. — Special  types  of  rock  excava- 
tors may  be  classified  as  to  the  method  of  cutting:  (1),  the  rec- 
tilinear groove  cutter  and  (2),  the  circular  groove  cutter. 

The  first  type  has  several  forms  as  follows: 

1.  Mechanical  chisels  or  drills. 

(a)  Hand  machines. 

(6)  Mounted  on  columns  or  bars. 

(c)   Mounted  on  carriages  on  rails. 

2.  Circular  saws  and  disc  machines. 

3.  Endless  cutter  chains. 

4.  Wire  saws. 

5.  Revolving  toothed  bars. 

1 .  (a)  A  drill  or  chisel  is  operated  by  steam  or  compressed  air 
and  chips  out  a  groove  by  the  impact  of  a  large  number  of  blows. 
The  machine  is  generally  mounted  on  a  small  truck  and  is 
guided  by  hand. 

(6)  The  groove  is  made  by  boring  a  succession  of  holes  near  to- 
gether and  later  chiseling  out  the  small  partitions.  The  machine 
consists  of  a  power  drill  mounted  on  a  frame  or  bar,  along  which 
the  machine  moves. 

(c)  The  third  form  is  the  well-known  channeling  machine  or 
channeller,  which  consists  of  a  self-contained  motor-operated 
carriage.  The  latter  moves  along  a  track  and  carries  one  or  two 
series  of  drills  or  chisels  which  cut  one  or  two  vertical  grooves 
in  the  floor. 

2.  Circular  saws  or  disc  machines  are  used  to  make  horizontal 
grooves  for  the  undercutting  of  coal  or  salt  in  mines.     The  usual 
form  of  machine  consists  of  a  circular  steel  plate  with  removable 
teeth  on  its  periphery  and  made  to  revolve  by  a  power-operated 
pinion.     The  machine  moves  ahead  as  the  groove  is  cut  by  pull 
of  a  wire  cable  wound  up  on  a  revolving  drum. 

3.  A  typical  form  of  cutter  is  that  equipped  with  an  endless 
chain  armed  with  teeth.     The  chain  travels  over  a  frame  which 
is  generally  triangular  in  shape.     The  machine  is  automatically 
fed  ahead  as  the  groove  is  cut.     With  such  a  machine  cuts  44  in. 
wide  and  5  ft.  deep  may  be  made  at  one  set  up  of  the  machine. 

4.  In  the  marble  quarries  of  Carrara,  Italy  and  elsewhere,  end- 
less cords  of  twisted  wires  or  cables  have  been  used  to  saw  out 
stone.     These  cords  move  over  guides  or  pulleys  and  are  provided 
with  sand  and  water  as  the  groove  is  cut  into  the  material. 

5.  The  latest  form  of  cutter  is  the  revolving  bar  machine. 


522     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

This  consists  of  a  cutter  bar  upon  which  are  arranged  bits  or 
teeth ;  the  bar  being  revolved  and  moved  sidewise  and  vertically 
by  power.  One  form  of  machine  is  designed  so  that  the  cutter 
bar  may  be  used  in  any  position  from  the  floor  to  a  height  above 
it  of  about  7  feet.  The  speed  of  the  bar  is  about  450  r.p.m.  and 
the  machine  may  be  fed  into  coal  at  the  rate  of  from  3  ft.  to 
4  ft.  per  minute.  The  machine  is  electrically  operated  and 
moves  along  a  track  under  its  own  power. 

The  second  type  of  machine  consists  of  a  cross-bar  or  disc 
provided  with  bits  or  teeth  and  made  to  revolve  in  a  vertical 
plane.  One  machine  of  this  type  has  a  5-ft.  diameter  disc  and 
actually  drove  a  heading  of  39  in.  in  46  minutes.  Another  ma- 
chine of  similar  type  made  an  average  weekly  record  of  51  ft. 
through  sandstone  and  with  a  diameter  of  7  ft.  4  inches. 

The  use  of  the  disc  machine  requires  a  suitable  method  of 
"mucking"  or  the  removal  of  the  excavated  material.  In  most 
cases,  this  has  been  provided  for  by  the  use  of  a  stream  of  water 
playing  upon  the  heading  at  a  pressure  of  from  30  Ib.  to  50  pounds. 
The  water  washes  the  material  away  from  the  face  of  the  heading 
and  carries  it  back  toward  the  portal  or  to  a  convenient  place 
where  it  may  be  loaded  in  dump  cars  for  final  removal. 

371.  Shoveling  Machines. — Several  types  of  shoveling  ma- 
chines have  been  devised  for  the  elevation  of  material  and  its 
disposal  in  cars,  wagons  or  on  to  a  spoil  bank.  These  are  largely 
mechanical  loaders  and  the  reader  is  referred  to  Chapter  XVI 
for  a  more  complete  description  of  various  types.  The  follow- 
ing is  a  brief  description  of  a  low-clearance  machine  which  has 
recently  been  put  upon  the  market  by  the  Myers- Whaley 
Company  of  Knoxville,  Tennessee. 

An  inspection  of  Fig.  209  will  give  a  general  idea  of  the  construc- 
tion and  method  of  operation  of  this  machine.  The  essential 
features  are  a  shovel  with  tipping  gear  dumping  the  spoil  on  to 
a  conveyor  which  passes  it  on  to  a  second  conveyor  and  thence 
into  cars  or  wagons.  The  machine  is  made  in  several  sizes  and 
capacities. 

The  machine  is  mounted  on  a  steel-framed  truck  which  is 
built  to  run  on  a  narrow-gage  track.  The  operating  equipment 
generally  consists  of  an  electric  motor  which  is  mounted  on  the 
truck  and  propels  the  machine  by  gears  and  operates  the  shovel 
and  conveyors  by  chain  drive. 

A  No.  4  machine  has  an  overall  width  of  5  ft.  4i  in.  and  a 


TUNNELS  AND  UNDERGROUND  MINES 


523 


minimum  height  of  4  ft.  6  inches.  It  is  operated  by  a  20-h.p. 
electric  motor,  and  has  a  working  speed  of  12  shovel  moves  per 
minute  and  an  average  output  of  40  cu.  ft.  per  minute  in  loose 
material. 

The  output  of  a  No.  4  machine  in  a  lead' ore  mine  at  Flat  River, 
Missouri,  has  averaged  about  7000  tons  per  month.  In  a  salt 
mine  at  Retsof ,  New  York,  a  similar  machine  has  handled  from 
250  tons  to  300  tons  in  a  9-hr,  working  day.  The  power 
consumption  averages  about  0.22  k.w.-hour  per  ton  of  material 
handled. 


=_-^-         _     .-^..-_.-^.---   -— .-— —    — .._ 

FIG.  209. — Shoveling  machine  operating  in  a  coal  mine.     (Courtesy  of  Myers- 

Whaley  Co.) 

372.  Use  of  Low-clearance  Shoveling  Machine  in  Africa. — 
Two  Myers-Whaley  machines  were  used  in  1914  in  the  Crown 
Mines  on  the  Witwatersrand  in  Africa.  The  machines  were 
operated  on  500-volt  direct  current  and  each  had  an  operating 
weight  of  about  17,000  pounds. 

The  material  loaded  was  hard  in  the  first  level  and  the  drilling 
was  slow,  requiring  about  24  hours.  Hand  mucking  required 
from  5  hr.  to  7  hr.  to  clean  up  the  face  while  the  machine  accom- 
plished the  same  task  in  about  3  hours.  The  increased  prog- 
ress due  to  the  machine  was  about  10  per  cent. 

In  the  second  heading,  also  10  ft.  X  14  ft.  in  cross-section,  the 
rock  was  much  softer  and  the  breaking  down  of  the  face  required 
only  9  hours.  The  saving  of  time  in  mucking  due  to  the  use  of 


524     EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

the  machine  was  from  3  hr.  to  4  hr.  or  a  net  gain  in  progress  of 
about  25  per  cent. 

The  number  of  Kafirs  required  to  operate  a  machine  averaged 
about  10  for  a  working  period  of  10  hours.  The  labor  wage  rate 
was  $0.775  per  boy  for  10  hr.,  and  the  muck  boss  received 
$4.85.  The  labor  cost  for  3  hr.  was  $1 .44  for  muck  boss  and  $1 .78 
for  boys;  total  $3.22. 

373.  Resume. — Since  1900,  the  great  development  in  the  con- 
struction of  railroad  tunnels  arfd  underground  mines  has  led  to 
the  use  of  power  excavators  for  both  earth  and  rock  excavation. 
The  earliest  and  simplest  form  of  excavator  is  a  special,  low- 
clearance  type  of  power  shovel  operated  by  compressed  air  or 
electricity.  Recent  experience  has  brought  about  the  use  of  spe- 
cially devised  cutters  and  loaders  which  are  very  efficient  for  cer- 
tain classes  of  work. 

Where  the  material  is  a  clay  or  similar  material  of  a  uniform 
consistency  or  character,  an  excavator  of  the  Bonnet  clay  ex- 
cavator type  is  very  efficient  and  economical.  However,  such  a 
machine  is  used  with  difficulty  in  material  of  a  varying  nature ' 
and  especially  where  rock  occurs  in  the  bottom  of  the  section 
or  quicksand  pockets  abound. 

Few  special  rock  excavators  have  proved  to  be  as  successful  for 
general  use  as  the  use  of  a  low-clearance  power  shovel  for  the 
loading  of  rock,  previously  broken  up  by  drilling  and  blasting. 
The  best  form  of  power  to  use  depends  on  local  conditions  of  avail- 
ability and  relative  cost  of  power.  Electric  power  is  generally 
available  in  tunneling  and  mining  operations  and  can  be  easily 
adapted  to  the  operation  of  shoveling  machines  and  special  forms 
of  excavators.  However,  in  the  operation  of  many  mines  and 
tunnel  plants,  compressed  air  is  preferred  to  electricity  for  the 
operation  of  machinery  on  account  of  its  safety,  simplicity  and 
convenience.  Ordinarily,  where  both  forms  of  power  are  avail- 
able, electricity  is  more  economical,  especially  when  secured  from 
water-power  developments. 

The  loading  or  belt  conveyor  type  of  shoveling  machine  is  a 
very  efficient  form  of  loading  device  and  can  be  used  to  advantage 
in  the  headings  of  rock  tunnels  and  mines.  The  author  has  been 
surprised  that  this  form  of  excavator  has  not  been  more  widely 
utilized  in  the  field  of  excavation. 

Tunneling  and  underground  mining  offers  a  new  and  attractive 
field  for  the  development  of  excavating  machinery,  and  the  next 


TUNNELS  AND  UNDERGROUND  MINES  525 

decade  will  doubtless  witness  the  more  general  adoption  of  the 
present  forms  and  the  introduction  of  several  new  types. 

374.    Bibliography. — For    further    information,    consult    the 
following : 

Books 

1.  "Coal  Miners'  Pocketbook,"  published  by  McGraw-Hill  Book  Com- 
pany, New  York.     Pocket  size,  flexible  binding,  figures.     Cost,  $4.00. 

2.  "Elements  of  Mining,"  by  G.  J.  YOUNG,  published  by  McGraw-Hill 
Book  Company,  New  York.     6  in.  X  9  in.,  628  pages,  271  figures.    Cost, 
$5.00. 

3.  A  Manual  of  Mining,"  by  IHLSENG  and  WILSON,  published  by  John 
Wiley  &  Sons,  New  York.     6  in.  X  9  in.,  337  figures,  723  pages.    Cloth, 
$4.50. 

4.  "Mining  without  Timber,"  by  R.  B.  BRINSMADE,  published  by  John 
Wiley  &  Sons,  New  York.     6  in.  X  9  in.,  309  pages,  figures.    Cost,  $3.00. 

5.  "Modern  Tunneling,"  by  BRUNTON and  DAVIS,  published  in  1914  by 
John  Wiley  &  Sons,  New  York.     6  in.  X  9  in.,  450  pages,  80  figures.    Cost, 
$3.50. 

6.  "Modern  Tunnel  Practice,"  by  D.  Me  N.  STAUFFER,  published  by 
McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  New  York.     6^  in.  X  9%  in.,  314  pages, 
138  figures.    Cost,  $3.50. 

7.  "The  Subways  and  Tunnels  of  New  York,"  by  GILBERT,  WIGHTMAN and 
SAUNDERS,  published  by  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  New  York.     6  in.  X  9  in.,  372 
pages,  figures.     Cost,  $4.00. 

Magazine  Articles 

1.  Coal-Face  Economy,  S.  H.  CASHMORE.     Iron  &  Coal  Trades  Review, 
December  11,  1914.     4000  words. 

2.  Comparative  Costs  of  Operating,  G.  S.  BRACKETT.     Colliery  Engineer, 
October,  1915.     2200  words. 

3.  Electrically  Driven  British  Longwall  Coal  Cutters,   S.  F.  WALKER. 
Coal  Age,  February  13,  1915.     Illustrated,  3000  words. 

4.  The  Harms  Tunneling  Machine,  R.  L.  HERRICK.     Mines  &  Mining, 
October,  1908.     Illustrated,  1700  words. 

5.  Liibecker  Excavator  in  the  Klondike,  C.  A.  THOMAS.     Engineering  & 
Mining  Journal,  June  17,  1916.     Illustrated,  2000  words. 

6.  Machine  Mining  in  the  South  Wales  Steam  Coals,  BUDGE  and  JAYNE. 
Colliery  Guardian,  September  26,  1913.     Illustrated,  3300  words. 

7.  A  Modern  Type  of  Mine  Tunneling  Machine.     Mineral  World,  April 
18,  1908.     Illustrated,  3000  words. 

8.  A  New  Entry-Driving  Machine,  A.  H.  GIBSON.     Coal  Age,  January  2, 
1915.     Illustrated,  1200  words. 

9.  Ore  and  Coal  Mining  Machinery,  C.  A.  TUPPER.     Mines  &  Mining, 
March,  1912.     2200  words. 

10.  Quarrying  Coal  at  Tofield,  Alberta,  J.  H.  SINCLAIR.     Colliery  Engineer, 
June,  1913.     Illustrated,  1000  words. 


526      EXCAVATION,  MACHINERY  METHODS  AND  COSTS 

11.  A  Revolution  in  Mining  Methods,  G.  E.  WOLCOTT.     Mining  &  Science 
Press,  November  26,  1910.     3000  words. 

12.  Scraper  Mining  for  Low  Veins.     Coal  Age,  June  17,  1916.     Illustrated, 
1000  words. 

13.  Self-Propelled    Low-Clearance     Shoveling     Machine.     Engineering, 
London,  July  9,  1915.     Illustrated,  1500  words. 

14.  A  Square  Working  Face  with  an  Overcutting  Machine,   E.  C.  DE 
WOLFE.     Coal  Age,  April  24, 1915.     Illustrated,  2000  words. 

15.  Some  Recent  Developments  in  Electric  Coal-Mining  Machines,  S. 
B.  KING.     Bulletin  of  American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers,  June,  1914. 
Illustrated,  6000  words. 

16.  Successful  Shoveling  Machine,  E.  H.  COXE.     Coal  Age,  July  17,  1915. 
Illustrated,  1500  words. 

17.  Working  with  a  New  Type  of  Coal  Cutter,  J.  G.  BART.     Coal  Age, 
February  27,  1915.     Illustrated,  1500  words. 

18.  Work  on  the  Sand  Patch  Tunnel,  B.  &  O.     Excavating  Engineer, 
July,  1913.     Illustrated,  2500  words. 


INDEX 


A-frame,  dipper  dredge,  180 

scraper  bucket  excavator,  89 

steam  shovel,  41 
Africa,  use  of     shoveling     machine, 

523 
Air-operated  shovels,  use  in  tunnels, 

518,  519 

Albrecht  loader,  242 
Analysis  of  power  shovel  operation, 

284 
Animal  motive  power  for  elevating 

grader,  28 

Arizona,  use  of  Fresno  scrapers,  345 
Atlantic  steam  shovel,  45,  49 
Austin  drainage  excavator,  111 

capacity,  115 

cost  of  operation,  114 

limitations  of,  113 

use  in  Colorado,  324 

use  in  Illinois,  327 
Austin  levee  builder,  115,  360 

bibliography,  118 

bucket,  117,  362 

capacity,  117,  362 

engine,  117,  361 

operating  cost,  117,  362 
Austin  scraper  bucket,  93 
Austin  wheel  ditcher,  150 

capacity,  150 

Backfilling  of  trenches,  440,  444 
machines,  444 

Basement  excavation,  458 

cost  analysis  of  steam  shovel 

operation,  471 
hand  shoveling,  460 
use  of  power  shovels,  464 
use  of  wheel  scrapers,  458 

Belt  conveyors,  207 

Bibliography,  Austin  levee    builder, 

118 
capstan  plow,  35 


Bibliography,  car  and  wagon  load- 
ers, 248 

clay  and  shale  pits,  512 

dipper  dredges,  193 

drag  and  wheel  scrapers,  17 

elevating  graders,  29 

flood  prevention  and  flood  pro- 
tection works,  374 

highway  construction,  269 

hydraulic  dredges,  222 

ladder  dredges,  209 

levee  builders,  374 

open  cut  mines,  512 

quarries,  512 

railroad  construction,  300 

rivers,  harbors  and  canals,  431 

rock  excavators,  240 

sand  and  gravel  pits,  512 

scraper-bucket  excavators,  108 

scrapers,  17 

steam  shovels,  66 

templet  excavators,  118 

tools  for  loosening,  5 

tower  excavators,  164 

trench  excavators,  143 

tunnel  excavation,  525 

underground  mining,  525 

wheel  excavators,  151 
Blade  graders,  19 

Blasting,  use  for  earth  loosening,  463 
Blockholing,  485 
Boiler,  dipper  dredge,  175 

hydraulic  dredge,  219 

ladder  dredge,  205 

locomotive  crane,  105 

scraper-bucket  excavator,  83 

steam  shovel,  38 

traveling  derrick,  105 
Bonnet  tunneling  machine,  515,  516 
Boom,  dipper  dredge,  170,  171,  172, 
173,  184 

locomotive  crane,  106 


527 


528  INDEX 

Boom,     scraper-bucket    excavators,  Cableway  excavators,  drag-line,  see 

73,  74,  75,  77,  81,  88,  100  tower  excavators,  152 

steam  shovel,  40  S.  Flory,  161 

traveling  derrick,  106  use    on    flood    prevention    and 

Bowman  ditcher  and  grader,  298  flood  protection  works,  363 

Brick    plants,    excavation   methods  use  in  sand  and  gravel  pits,  504 

and  costs,  508,  509,  510  California,  use  of  clam-shell  dredge, 
British    Columbia,    use    of    dipper  360 

dredges,  393  use  of  grab-bucket  dredge,  360 

use  of  hydraulic  dredges,  397  use  of  hydraulic  dredge,  367 

use  of  ladder  dredge,  395  use  of  revolving  shovel,  260 

use    of   rock    cutter    and    drill  Calumet-Sag  canal,  use  of  scraper 

boats,  402,  403  bucket  excavators,  413 

use  of  trestle  cable  excavator,  Canada,    use    of   drill   boats,    402, 

449  403 

Brownhoist  Shnable  scraper  bucket,  use  of  dipper  dredges,  393 

92  use  of  hydraulic  dredges,  397 

Browning  scraper  bucket,  93  use  of  ladder  dredge,  395 

Bucket,  Austin  scraper,  93  use  of  trestle  cable  excavator, 

Brownhoist  Shnable,  92  449 

Browning  scraper,  93  Canals,  403 
Bucyrus  scraper,  94  bibliography,  431 

Clam-shell,  43,  44  cost  of  excavation,  431 

Iverson  scraper,  94  use  of  dipper  dredges,  418 

Martinson  scraper,  92  use  of  graders,  405 

Monighan  scraper,  92  use  of  ladder  dredges,  420,  421, 

Orange-peel,  42,  44  423 

Page  scraper,  91  use  of  power  shovels,  406 

Weeks  scraper,  95  use     of     scraper     bucket     ex- 

Bucket  wheel  excavator,  126  cavators,  412 

Buckeye  traction  ditcher,  126  use  of  scrapers,  404 

capacity,  129  use    of    tower    cableway    ex- 

cost,  129  cavators,  414 

excavating  cost,  130  Cape    Cod    Canal,    use    of    power 
excavating  wheel,  127  shovels,  411 

operating  cost,  130  Capstan  plow,  bibliography,  35 
operation,  128  capacity,  34 

power  equipment,  127  caterpillar  tractor,  32 

sizes,  129  cost  of  operation,  34 

use  in  Colorado,  447  description,  31 

use  in  Ohio,  455  excavating  cost,  34 

Bucyrus  scraper  bucket,  94  gasoline  engine  motive  power, 

steam  shovel,   37,    45,    49,    54,  32 

262,  284,  289,  291,  313,  412,  limitations,  35 

501,  518  method  of  operation,  32,  34 

Car-body,  steam  shovel,  37 

Cable,  41  Car  loaders,  242 

Cableway  excavators,  152,  363  Cars,  disposal,  53,  284,  478,  489,  491, 
Carson-Lidgerwood,  452  494,  495,  496,  502 


INDEX 


529 


Carson-Lidgerwood  cableway,  452 
use  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  452 
Carson-Lidgerwood    excavator,    ex- 
cavating cost,  453 
Carson-Trainor  excavator,  133 
Carson    trench    excavators,    boiler, 

131 

cables,  130 
capacity,  130 
engine,  131 

excavating  cost,  133,  450 
operating  cost,  133,  450 
sizes,  133,  134 
trestles,  131 
tubs,  132,  134 

use  in  British  Columbia,  449 
Cement  quarry  operation,  474 
Chicago  drainage  canal,  use  of  ele- 
vating grader,  405 
use  of  tower  excavator,  416 
use  of  wheel  scrapers,  404 
Chicago  trench  excavator,  120 
Clam-shell  bucket,  43 

dredges,  use  in  North  Carolina, 

380 

Clay  and  shale  pits,  507 
excavation,  493 
excavator  for  tunneling,  515 
pit  excavation,  use  of  scraper 

bucket  excavator,  508 
Coal  mine  excavation,  499 

mining,  bibliography,  512 
Colorado,     use     of     templet     ex- 
cavator, 324 
use      of      Buckeye      traction 

ditcher,  448 

use  of  dipper  dredge,  335 
use  of  elevating  grader,  280 
use  of  Fresno  scrapers,  306 
use  of  wheel  scrapers,  307 
Comparative     use     of     excavating 

machinery,  431 
Connecticut,  use  of  wheel  scrapers, 

458 

foundation  excavation,  458 
Continuous      bucket      excavators, 

120,  264 
use  on  trench  excavation,  445, 

446,  447,  448 
34 


Conveyors,   26,   28,   123,   147,   148, 
197,  203 

Cost,  see  the  article  in  question 

Cost  analysis  of  steam  shovel  opera- 
tion, 471 
of  earthwork,  scrapers,  274 

Cutters,  hydraulic  dredge,  215,  216, 
397,  399,  425 

D-handle  shovel,  4 
Dipper  dredges,  166 
A-frame,  180 
bibliography,  193 
boiler,  175 
boom,  184 
cables,  188 
capacity,    170,    171,    172,    173, 

191,  192 

classification,  166 
cost,  191,  336,  340 
dipper,  186 

handle,  186 

engines,  170,  171,  172,  173 
excavating  cost,  190,  336,  340, 

380,  392,  394,  419 
general  details,  188 
hoisting  engine,  170,  171,  172, 

173,  176 

hull,  169,  170,  171,  172,  173 
operation,  189 
operating  cost,   191,  392,  393, 

419 

sheaves,  188 
sizes,  170,  171,  172,  173 
spud  engines,  184 
spuds,  181 
swinging  engine,  170,  171,  172, 

173,  177 

use  in  British  Columbia,  393 
use  on  canals,  418 
use  in  Colorado,  335 
use   on   drainage   works,    334, 

335,  337 
use   on    flood    prevention   and 

flood  protection  works,  366 
use  in  Florida,  337 
use  in  harbor  improvement,  391, 

393 
use  in  New  York,  391 


530 


INDEX 


Dipper  dredges,  use  on  New  York 
State  Barge  Canal,  419 

use  on  Ohio  River,  379 

use  on  Panama  Canal,  418 

use  on  rivers,  379,  380,  381 

use  in  South  Dakota,  337 

use  in  Tennessee,  381 
Double-tower  excavator,  157 
Drag-line      cableway      excavators, 

see  tower  excavators,  152 
Drag-line   excavators,    see   scraper- 
bucket  excavators,  72 
Drag  scrapers,  see  slip  scrapers,  6 

cost,  6 

description,  6 

excavating  cost,  7,  13 

sizes,  6 

weight,  6 

working  capacities,  6 
Drainage  works,  325 

use  of  floating  dipper  dredges, 
334,  335,  337 

use  of  grab-bucket  dredges,  343, 
344) 

use  of  graders,  325,  326 

use  in  harbors,  400,  402 

use  of  hydraulic  dredges,  342 

use  of  ladder  dredges,  340 

use  of  scraper-bucket  excava- 
tors, 331,  332,  333 

use  of  scrapers,  325 

use  of  templet  excavators,  327, 
328 

use  of  wheel  excavators,  330 
Dredges,  classification,  166 

dry-land,  72 

floating  dipper,  166 

hydraulic,  212 

ladder,  197 

steel  pontoon,  421 

walking,  76,  102 
Drill  boats,  231 

bibliography,  240 

capacity,  240 

classification,  232 

operating  cost,  239,  240,  401, 
402,  403 

operation,  235 

use  in  Canada,  402,  403 


Drill  boats,  use  in  harbors,  400,  402 

Dump  cars,  53,  284,  478,  489,  491, 

494,  495,  496,  502 

Earth  dam  construction,  346,  347, 

349,  350,  351,  353,  369 
Electrically  operated  steam  shovels, 

36,  60 

Elevating  graders,  capacity,  28 
description,  26 
excavating  cost,  28,  259,  283, 

326,  349 
limitations,  29 
use  on  Chicago  Drainage  Canal, 

405 

use  in  Colorado,  280 
use  on  drainage  canals,  326 
use   on   flood   prevention   and 

flood  protection  works,  347, 

349 

use  in  Idaho,  349 
use  on  irrigation  works,  309 
use  in  Minnesota,  326 
use  hi  Montana,  311 
use  in  New  York,  282 
use   on   railroad    construction, 

279,  280,  282 

use  in  South  Dakota,  326,  347 
Elevator  dredges,  see  ladder  dredges, 

197 
Embankments,  292,  348,  349,  350, 

351,  353,  369 
Endless-chain     trench     excavators, 

120,  123 
bucket,  122,  123 

chain,  122 

capacity,  124,  129,  130 
cost,  125 
engine,  121,  122 
operating  cost,  124 
sizes,  129 
use  in  Illinois,  446 
Engines,  dipper  dredge,  176 
gasoline,  87 
hydraulic  dredge,  218,  341,  367, 

368,  387,  389,  427 
ladder  dredge,   204,   341,   384, 

395,  423 
locomotive  crane,  105 


INDEX 


531 


Engines,  scraper-bucket    excavator, 

74,  75,  77,  85,  103,  105 
steam  shovel,  39,  289 
templet  excavator,  111 
tower  excavator,  153,  157,  160 
traveling  derrick,  105 
trench    excavators,    121,    127, 

131,  134,  135,  138 
walking  dredge,  77,  103 
wheel  excavators,  147,  149 
England,  use  of  rock  cutters  and 

drill  boats,  400 

Excavating  cost  with  cableway  ex- 
cavator, 158,  162,  364,  416 
with  capstan  plow,  34 
with  continuous  bucket  exca- 
vator, 124,  141,  447,   448, 
449,  455,  456,  457 
with  dipper  dredge,  190,  336, 

340,  380,  392,  394,  419 
with  drill  boats,  238,  402,  403 
with   elevating   graders,    28, 

259,  283,  326,  349 
with  Fresno  scraper,  306,  307, 

346 
with  grab-bucket   excavator, 

344,  358,  359,  442,  443 
with  hand  shovel,  5 
with  hydraulic  dredge,  221, 

368,  369,  388,  390,  398 
with  ladder  dredge,  207,  342, 

386,  395 

with  levee  builder,  117,  360 
with  locomotive  crane,   107, 

442,  443 

with    Maney    four-wheel 
scraper,  14,  15,  252,  307,  309 
with  plow,  3,  4 
with  Reclamation  grader,  256 
with  scraper-bucket  excava- 
tor, 99,  106,  315,  316,  333, 
334,  413 

with  slip  scrapers,  7,  13,  306 
with^steamjjshovel,    51,    59, 
262,  290,  291,  312,  313,  314, 
351,  352,  407,  408,  470,  471, 
502,  510 

with  templet  excavator,  114, 
324 


Excavating  cost  with  tile  trench  ex- 
cavators, 141,  455,  456,  457 
with   tower   excavator,    158, 

162,  415,  416 
with  traveling  derrick,    107, 

442,  443 

with       trench       excavators, 
124,    133,    136,    141,    447, 
448,  449,  455,  456,  457 
with  trestle  cable  excavator, 

133,  450 
with  trestle  track  excavator, 

136,  451 

with  two-wheel  grader,  326 
with   wheel   excavator,    150, 

330 
with  wheel  scraper,  345,  347, 

405,  460 

Excavator  and  loader,  242 
Excavators, 

Atlantic  steam  shovel,  45,  49, 

313 
Austin  drainage  excavator,  11, 

327 

Austin  levee  builder,  115,  360 
Austin  wheel  ditcher,  149 
Buckeye  traction  ditcher,  126, 

455 

bucket  wheel,  126 
Bucyrus  steam  shovel,  37,  45, 
49,  54,  262,  284,  289,  291, 
313,  412,  501,  518 
capstan  plow,  31 
Carson-Lidgerwood     cableway, 

160 

Carson-Trainor,  133,  449 
Chicago  trench,  120,  446 
continuous  bucket,  120,  445 
dipper  dredges,  166,  334,  366, 

379,  391,  418 
double  tower,  157,  416 
drag-line,  80,  291,  314,  331,  353, 

412,  503 
cableway,  152 

drill  boats,  231,  401,  402,  403 
elevator  dredges,  197,  340,  383, 

394,  420 

Fresno  scraper,  8,  306,  345 
Gopher  traction  ditcher,  73 


532 


INDEX 


Excavators,   graders,  20,  253,  279, 

309,  325,  347,  405 
elevating,  26,  256,  280,  311, 

326,  348,  405 
Hovland  tile  ditcher,  138 
hydraulic  dredges,  212,  342,  366, 

386,  396,  424 

Jacobs  guided-drag-line,  101 
Junkin  ditcher,  328 
ladder  dredges,  197,  340,  383, 

394,  420 

levee  builder,  115,  345 
Lobnitz  rock  cutter,  230,  400, 

402 
locomotive    crane,     104,     442, 

443 
Maney  four-wheel  scraper,  12, 

252 
Marion-Osgood    steam    shovel, 

353,  409,  412,  520 
Otis-Chapman    steam    shovel, 

351 

Parsons  traction  trench,  121 
Potter  trench,  135,  450 
Reclamation  grader,  22,  256 
scraper,  with  two  booms,  72 
scrapers,    drag   and   wheel,    6, 

250,    272,    304,    325,   345, 

404,  437,  548 
sewer  trench,  120,  436 
steam    shovels,    36,    260,    284, 

3.11,    349,    406,    437,    464, 

499,  518 

templet,  111,  327 
Thew      automatic      revolving 

shovel,  55,  56,  263,  465 
tile  trench,  138,  454 
tower,  152,  416 

cableway,  152,  442,  443 
traveling  derrick,  104 
trench,  120,  436 

Carson,  131,  449 
trestle  cable,  131,  449 

track,  135,  450 
use  in  cement  quarries,  474 
use  in  clay  and  shale  pits,  507, 

508,  509 
use  on  dam  construction,  346, 

347,  349,  350,  353,  369 


Excavators,  use  on  highway  con- 
struction, 250,  252,  256, 
260,  264 

use  on  levee  construction,  115, 
345,  354,  355,  358,  360,  364, 
367,  368 

use  on  railroad  construction, 
272,  279,  284,  291,  293, 
298,  299 

use  in  sand  and  gravel  pits, 
503,  505,  506 

Vulcan  steam  shovel,  313,  350, 
500 

walking  drag-line,  102 
dredge,  76 

water-pipe  trench,  120,  436 

wheel,  146,  330 

scrapers,    10,  252,  274,  307, 
345,  404,  458 


Fall-line      cableway,      see      tower 

cableway,  159 
Feed-water  heater,  176 
Floating  excavators,  166 

elevator  dredges,  197,  340,  383, 

394,  420 
hydraulic    dredges,    212,     342, 

366,  386,  396,  424 
ladder  dredges,   197,  340,  383, 

394,  420,  424 

Flood    prevention    and    flood    pro- 
tection works,  345 
bibliography,  374 
use  of  cableways,  363,  364 
use  of  elevating  graders,  347, 

349 
use  of  floating  dipper  dredge, 

366 
use  of  grab-bucket  dredge,  358, 

360 
use  of  hydraulic  dredge,   366, 

367,  368,  369 

use  of  power  shovels,  349,  350, 
351,  353 

use  of  scraper-bucket  ex- 
cavators, 353,  354,  355 

use  of  scrapers,  345,  346 

use  of  templet  levee  builder,  360 


INDEX 


533 


Florida,  use  of  dipper  dredge,  337 
use  of  scraper-bucket  excavator, 

333 

Foundation  and  basement  excava- 
tion, 458 

Four-wheel  graders,  20,  22 
Fresno  scrapers,  9 
cost,  9 

description,  9 
excavating  cost,  9 
sizes,  9 

use  in  Arizona,  345 
use  in  Colorado,  306 
use  in  Nevada,  306 
use    on    flood    prevention    and 
flood  protection  works,  345, 
346 

weight,  9 
working  capacity,  9 


Gantry  of  ladder  dredge,  202 
Gasoline  engine  elevator  drive  for 

elevating  grader,  29 
engine  power,  steam  shovels,  56 
scraper-bucket  excavators,   74, 

75,86 

templet  excavators,  111,  114 
trench  excavators,  121,  127,  138 
walking  dredge,  104 
wheel  excavators,  147,  149 
Georgia,  use  of  scraper-bucket  exca- 
vator, 508 

Gopher  traction  ditcher,  73,  74 
Grab  bucket,  42,  43 

dredges,  use  in  California,  360 

use  on  drainage  works,  343,  344 

use   on    flood    prevention    and 

flood  protection  works,  358, 

360 

use  in  Louisiana,  344,  358 
use  in  North  Carolina,  380 
use  in  trench  excavation,  441 
Grader,    elevating,    animal    motive 

power,  28 
bibliography,  29 
cost,  27 

of  operation,  28,  405 
description,  26 


Grader,     gasoline-engine      elevator 
drive,  28,  29 

limitations,  29 

traction-engine  motive  power, 
28,  29 

use  in  Idaho,  349 

use  in  Minnesota,  326 

use  in  Montana,  311 

use  in  New  York,  282 

use  in  South  Dakota,  326,  347 

weight,  27 

working  capacity,  28 
four-wheel,  20 
large  elevating,  27 
light  wheel,  20 

cost,  20 
Reclamation,  cost,  22 

cost    of    road    construction 
with,  24 

description,  22 

use  in  Iowa,  256 
road  or  scraping,  19 

cost,  20 

cost  of  excavation,  24 

weight,  20 

working  capacity,  20,  24 
Shuart,  25 
small  elevating,  27 
standard  elevating,  27 
standard  wheel,  20 

cost,  20 
two-wheel,  19 

capacity,  20 

cost,  20 

description,  19 

use  in  Mississippi,  24 

weight,  20 
use  on  canals,  405 
Gravel  pits,  503 

Haiss  loader,  243 

Hand  shoveling  on  basement  excava- 
tion, 460 
cost,  5 
Harbors,  390 

bibliography,  431 

use  of  dipper  dredges,  391,  393 

use  of  hydraulic  dredges,  396, 


534 


INDEX 


Harbors,  use  of  ladder  dredges,  394, 

395 
use  of  rock  cutters   and   drill 

boats,  400,  402,  403 
Hauling  cost  with  dump  wagons,  348 
Highway  construction,  250 
bibliography,  269 
cost  of  grading,  253,  260,  263, 

267,  268 
excavators,  250,  253,  256,  260, 

264,  267 

methods,  250,  253,  258,  263,  267 
use  of  blade  graders,  253,  256 
use  of  continuous  bucket  exca- 
vators, 264 

use  of  elevating  grader,  256,  259 
use  of  power  shovels,  260,  262, 

263 

use  of  scrapers,  250,  252,  253 
Hopper  car,  use  at  sand  plant,  507 
Hovland  tile  ditcher,  138 
Hull,  dipper  dredge,  169,  170,  171, 

172,  173,  335,  337,  392 
hydraulic  dredge,  218,  367,  368, 

389,  397,  398,  425 
ladder  dredge,   200,   341,   384, 

395,  396,  421 

rock  excavators,  229,  232,  402 
Hydraulic  dredges,  212 
bibliography,  222,  374 
boiler,  219 
capacity,  221 
classification,  212 
discharge  pipe,  219 
electric  operation,  367,  386 
engines,  218 
excavating  cost,  221,  369,  371, 

388,  390,  398 
hull,  218,  367,  389,  397 
operation,  215,  220 
operating  cost,  221, 371, 398, 429 
pump,  216,  217 
spud  frame,  219 
suction  pipe,  216 
use  in  California,  367 
use  in  Canada,  397 
use   on   flood    prevention   and 

flood  protection  works,  366, 

367,  368,  369 


Hydraulic    dredges,  use  in  harbors, 

396,  398 

use  in  Minnesota,  398 
use  on  Mississippi  River,  368, 

388 
use  on  New  York  State  Barge 

Canal,  424 

use  on  Panama  Canal,  429 
use  on  rivers,  386,  388 
Hydraulic-fill  method  of  excavation, 

366,  369,  481 
Hydraulicking,  369,  481 


Idaho,  use  of  elevating  graders,  349 
use  of  steam  shovel,  313 
use  of  scraper-bucket  excava- 
tors, 315,  321 
use  of  scrapers,  304 
Illinois,  use  of  Austin  templet  exca- 
vator, 327 

use  of  Chicago  trench  excava- 
tor, 446 

use  of  steam  shovel,  290,  505 
use  of  trestle  track  excavator, 

450 

use  of  wheel  scrapers,  252,  308 
Indiana,   use   of  locomotive   crane, 

442 
use    of    tile-trench    excavator, 

456 
Iowa,  use  of  four-wheel  graders,  256 

use  of  revolving  shovel,  262 
Iron  mine  excavation,  501 

bibliography,  512 
Irrigation  works,  use  of  elevating 

grader,  311 

use  of  floating  excavators,  325 
use  of  Fresno  scrapers,  306 
use  of  graders,  309 
use  of  power  shovels,  311,  312, 

313 

use  of  scraper-bucket  excava- 
tors, 314,  315,  316,  321 
use  of  scrapers,  304 
use  of  templet  excavators,  323, 

324 

use  of  wheel  scrapers,  307,  308 
Iverson  scraper  bucket,  94 


INDEX 


535 


Jack-braces,  44 

Jacobs  guided-drag-line-bucket  exca- 
vator, 101 

cost,  102 
Junkin  ditcher,  328 

use  in  North  Dakota,  328 

Kansas,  use  of  steam  shovels,  499 
Kentucky,  use  of  locomotive  crane, 
443 

Ladder  dredges,  197 

bibliography,  209 

boiler,  205 

capacity,  208 

chain  and  buckets,  201 

cost,  206 

electric  operation,  204 

engines,  205 

excavating  cost,  207,  208,  422, 
424 

gantry,  202 

hull,  200 

ladder,  201 

operating  cost;  208,  422,  424 

operation,  205 

spoil  conveyors,  203 

spuds,  204 

use  in  British  Columbia,  395 

use  on  canals,  420,  421,  423 

use  on  drainage  works,  340 

use  in  harbors,  394,  395 

use  in  Massachusetts,  395 

use  on  New  York  State  Barge 
Canal,  421 

use  on  Panama  Canal,  423 

use  on  rivers,  383,  384 

use  on  St.  Lawrence  River,  383 

use  in  Washington,  340 

use  in  Wisconsin,  384 
Levee  builders,  115,  360 
Levee  construction,   115,  345,  354, 
355,  358,  360,  364,  367,  368 
Levee  constructors,  115,  360 

Austin  levee  builder,  115,  360 

bibliography,  118,  374 

capacity,  117,  362 

dipper  dredge,  366 

dry-land  dredge,  353 


Levee  constructors,  excavating  cost, 
347,  348,  349,  351,  352, 
359,  365 

use  of  dry-land  dredge  in  Cali- 
fornia, 360 
in  Louisiana,  354 
use  of  Fresno  scrapers,  345 
use    of    hydraulic    dredge    in 

California,  367 
on  Mississippi  River,  368 
use  of  scrapers,  345 
Limitations  of  Atlantic  steam  shovel, 

49 

of  Austin  templet  excavator,  113 
of  drag-line  excavator,  100 
Loaders,    car    and     wagon,     bibli- 
ography, 248 
cost  of  operation,  247 
description,  243 
operation,  245 

Loading  by  shoveling,  cost,  5 
Lobnitz  rock  cutter,  230,  400,  402 
bibliography  240,  431 
capacity,  402,  403 
operation,  231,  400,  402 
use  in  harbors,  400,  402 
Locomotive     crane,     see    traveling 

derrick,  104 
Long  handle  shovel,  4 
Loosening  of  earth  by  blasting,  463 

by  plowing,  3,  4 
Louisiana,     use      of     grab-bucket 

dredge,  344,  358 
use     of    scraper-bucket    exca- 
vator, 354 
use  of  tower  excavator,  364 

Maine,  use  of  steam  shovel,  351 
Maney  four-wheel  scraper,  12 

capacity,  12,  13 

cost,  13 

description,  12 

excavating  cost,  14,  15,  309 

use  in  Colorado,  307 

use  in  Illinois,  252,  308 

use  in  Oregon,  307 
Marion-Osgood  steam  shovel,  353, 

409,  412,  520 
Martinson  scraper  bucket,  92 


536 


INDEX 


Massachusetts,      use      of      ladder 

dredges,  395 
use  of  steam  shovel,  465 
Mattock,  2 
Michigan,    use    of    scraper-bucket 

excavators,  503 
Mines,  open-cut,  498 
Minnesota,       use       of      hydraulic 

dredge,  398 
use  of  steam  shovel,  501 

for  back-filling,  440 
Mississippi,    use    of   double    tower 

excavator,  364 

use  of  two-wheel  grader,  326 
Mississippi  River,  use  of  hydraulic 

dredges,  368,  388 

Missouri,  use  of  scraper-bucket  exca- 
vators, 355 

use  of  shoveling  machine,  523 
Moldboard  plow,  2 
Monighan  scraper  bucket,  92 
Montana,  use  of  elevating  grader, 

311 

use     of    scraper-bucket    exca- 
vators, 316 

use  of  steam  shovel,  289 
Mud  capping,  486 
Municipal  improvements,  436 
Myers- Whaley   shoveling   machine, 
522 

Nevada,  use  of  Fresno  scrapers,  306 
use     of    scraper-bucket    exca- 
vator, 315 
New    York,    use    of    air-operated 

shovels,  519 

use  of  dipper  dredge,  391 
use  of  elevating  grader,  282 
use  of  hydraulic  dredge,  424 
use  of  steam  shovel,  353,  437 
New     York    State     Barge     Canal, 
comparative  use   of  exca- 
vators, 430 

use  of  dipper  dredges,  419 
use  of  hydraulic  dredge,  424 
use  of  ladder  dredge,  421 
use     of    scraper-bucket    exca- 
vator, 412 
use  of  tower  excavator,  415 


North   Carolina,   use   of   clam-shell 

dredges,  380 
North  Dakota,  use  of  Junkin 

ditcher,  328 
use  of  steam  shovel,  509 

Ohio,  use  of  Buckeye  tile  ditcher,  455 
use  of  drag-line  excavator,  293 
use    of    tile-trench    excavator, 

455 
Ohio  River,  use  of  dipper  dredges, 

379 
Ontario,     Canada,    use    of    steam 

shovel,  406 
Open-cut  mines,  498 
Open-cut  mining,  bibliography,  512 
Orange-peel  bucket,  42 
Oregon,  use  of  wheel  scrapers,  307 
Otis-Chapman  steam  shovel,   351 
Overburden   excavation,    477,    498, 

503 

Page  scraper  bucket,  91 
Panama     Canal,     use     of     dipper 
dredges,-  418 

use  of  hydraulic  dredges,  429 

use  of  ladder  dredge,  423 

use  of  steam  shovels,  408 
Parsons      traction      trench      exca- 
vator, 121 
Pavement  plow,  2 
Pawling  and   Harnischfeger  trench 

machine,  447 

Pennsylvania,   use   of   air-operated 
shovels,  518 

use  of  trench  excavator,  447 
Pick,  2 

Pipe-trench  excavation,  436 
Plow,  capstan,  31 

moldboard,  2 

pavement,  2 

railroad,  2 
Plowing,  cost,  3,  4 
Plows,  unloading,  300 
Potter  trench  excavator,  capacity, 
135 

excavating  cost,  137 

operation,  136 

use  in  Illinois,  450 


INDEX 


537 


Power  shovels,  see  steam  shovels,  36 
Pump,  hydraulic  dredges,  216,  217 
steam  shovels,  39 

Quarries,  476 
Quarrying,  476 

bibliography,  512 

Railroad  construction,  272 
bibliography,  300 
use  of  blade  graders,  279 
use  of  double  railroad  ditcher, 

296 
use  of  drag-line  excavator,  292, 

293 
use  of  elevating  graders,   280, 

282 
use  of  power  shovels,  284,  289, 

290 
use  of  railway  ditching  trains, 

293 

use  of  scrapers,  272 
use  of  single  railroad  ditcher, 

295 
use  of  special  ditching  machine, 

298 

use  of  wheel  scrapers,  274 
Railroad  ditching  trains,  293 

plow,  2 

Reclamation  grader,  22 
excavating  cost,  24 
use  in  Iowa,  256 
use  on  irrigation  works,  309 
work,  303 

Regulation  of  rivers,  378 
Revolving  steam  shovels,  53,  260 
construction,  53 
cost  of  operation,  59 
excavating  equipment,  56 
gasoline  power,  56 
limitations,  57 
operation,  57,  58 
power  equipment,  54 
thrusting  mechanism,  56 
working  capacity,  58 
Rivers,  378 

bibliography,  431 

use  of  dipper  dredge,  379,  380, 

381 


Rivers,    use   of    hydraulic   dredges, 

386,  388 

use  of  ladder  dredges,  383,  384 
Road  graders,  19 
capacity,  20,  24 
cost,  20 

excavating  cost,  24 
light  wheel  grader,  20 
standard  wheel  grader,  20 
use  in  Iowa,  256 
use  in  Mississippi,  326 
use  on  highway  construction,  22, 

253 

weight,  20 
Rock  breaking,  485 

excavation,  490,  495 
excavators,  229,  400 
classification,  229 
drill  boats,  231,  400,  402 
Lobnitz  rock  excavator,  230, 

400,  402 

use  in  tunneling,  517     . 
use  in  underground  mines,  521 


Sand  and  gravel  pit  operation,  503 
Scraper-bucket  excavators,  72 

A-frame,  89 

bibliography,  108 

boiler,  83 

boom,  88 

buckets,  89,  91,  92,  93,  94,  95 

cable,  98 

capacity,  73,  99 

cost  of  excavation,  99,  332,  333, 
413 

description,  72,  80 

electric  power,  87 

engines,  85,  88 

gasoline  power,  74,  87 

limitations,  99,  100 

locomotive  crane,  104 

method  of  operation,  98 

revolving,  80 

use  on  Calumet-Sag  canal,  413 

use  on  canals,  412 

use  in  clay  pits,  508 

use  on  drainage  works,  331,  332, 
333 


538 


INDEX 


Scraper-bucket  excavators,  use  on 
flood  prevention  and  flood 
protection  works,  353,  354, 
355 

use  in  Florida,  333 
use  in  Georgia,  508 
use  in  Idaho,  315,  321 
use  in  iron  mines,  503 
use  on   irrigation  works,   314, 

315,  316,  321 
use  in  Louisiana,  354 
use  in  Michigan,  503 
use  in  Missouri,  355 
use  in  Nevada,  315 
use  in  Ohio,  293 
use    on    railroad    construction, 

291,  292,  293 

use  in  South  Dakota,  292,  332 
use  on  New  York  State  Barge 

Canal,  412 
working     capacities,     73,     99, 

.     104,  107 
Scrapers,  6 
drag,  6 
cost,  6 

description,  6 
excavating  cost,  7,  13,  273 
sizes,  6 
use  on  irrigation  works,  304, 

306 

weight,  6 

working  capacity,  6 
effect  of  lead  and  soil  on  cost  of 

operation,  278 
Fresno,  8 
cost,  9 

description,  9 
excavating  cost,  9,  273,  274, 

305 

sizes,  9 

use  on  Arizona,  345 
use  hi  Colorado,  306 
use  on  irrigation  works,  304, 

306 

use  on  Nevada,  306 
weight,  9 

slip,  see  drag  scrapers, 
wheel,  10 
cost,  11 


Scrapers,  description,  11 

excavating  cost,  11,  273,  274, 

305,  404,  460 
Maney    four-wheel    scraper, 

12 
operating  cost,  11,  13,  14,  15, 

273,  274,  305,  404,  460 
sizes,  11 
use    on    Chicago     Drainage 

Canal,  404 
use  in  Colorado,  307 
use  on  irrigation  works,  305, 

307,  308 

use  in  Missouri,  345 
use  in  Oregon,  307 
use    on    Railroad    construc- 
tion, 274 

use  in  Wyoming,  346 
weight,  11,  13 

working  capacity,  11,  13,  273 
Sewer  trench  excavation  with  steam 

shovel,  437,  439 
excavators,  120,  130,  135,  436 

see  trench  excavators. 
S.  Flory  cableway,  161 
Shale  excavation,  488 
Shovel,  D-handle,  4 

long  handle,  4 
Shoveling,  cost,  5 
Shrinkage    in    embankments,    345, 

347 

Shuart  Grader,  25 
Slip  scrapers,  see  drag  scrapers,  6 
South  Dakota,  use  of  dipper  dredge, 

337 
use   of   elevating   grader,    326, 

347 
use  of  scraper-bucket  excavator, 

292,  332 

use  of  steam  shovel,  350 
Spoil  conveyors,  207 
Spuds,  181 

dipper  dredge,  181 
hydraulic  dredge,  219 
ladder  dredge,  204 
rock  excavators,  232,  235 
Steam  shovels,  A-frame,  41 
analysis  of  operation,  284 
Atlantic  type,  49 


INDEX 


539 


Steam  shovels,  bibliography,  66 
boiler,  38,  54 
boom,  40 
bucket,  42,  43,  44 
Bucyrus,  37,  45,  49,  54,   262, 

284,    289,    291,    313,    412, 

501,  518 
car  body,  37,  38 
classification,  36 
comparative  cost  of  hand  and 

power  shoveling,  64,  65 
compressed  air  power,  518,  519 
cost,  44 

cost  of  excavation,  51,  52,  53, 
59,   60,   63,   284,   287,     289, 

291,    407,    411,    471,    479, 

489,  492,  495 
dipper,  41,  42,  43 

handle,  41 

electric  operation,  36,  60 
engines,  39,  54 
frame,  38 
jack-braces,  44 
limitations,  48,  49 
Marion-Osgood,  353,  409,  412, 

520 

operation,  47,  284,  288 
Otis-Chapman,  351 
power  equipment,  39,  54 
pump,  39 
revolving,  53 

Thew  revolving,  55,  56,  263,  465 
transportation,  37 
trucks,  38 
use  of  air-operated  shovels  in 

tunnels,  518,  519 
use  for  backfilling  in  Minnesota, 

440 
use    on    basement    excavation, 

464,  465 

use  in  California,  260 
use  on  canals,  406 
use  on  Cape  Cod  Canal,  411 
use   in   cement   quarries,    478, 

489,  490,  493,  495,  497 
use  in  coal  mines,  499 
use  on  flood  prevention  and  pro- 
tection   works,    349,   350, 

351,  353 


Steam  shovels,  use  in  Idaho,  313 
use  in  Illinois,  290,  505 
use  in  Iowa,  262 
use  in  iron  mines,  501 
use  on  irrigation  works,  311 
use  in  Kansas,  499, 
use  in  Maine,  351 
use  in  Minnesota,  501 
use  in  Montana,  289 
use  in  New  York,  351,  437 
use  in  North  Dakota,  509 
use  in  Ontario,  Canada,  406 
use  on  Panama  Canal,  408 
use    on    railroad,  construction, 

284,  289,  290 
use  in   sand   and   gravel   pits, 

505,  506 

use  in  South  Dakota,  350 
use  in  Texas,  302 
use  on  trench  excavation,  437, 

439 

use  in  Utah,  312 
use  in  Wisconsin,  506 
Vulcan,  350,  500 
water  supply,  39 
weight,  46 
working  capacity,   46,   50,   51, 

58,  63 
Steel  dredge  hull,  174 

pontoon  dredge,  421 
St.  Lawrence  River,  use  of  ladder 

dredges,  383 
Stripping  of  quarries  and  mines,  477, 

498 
Subaqueous  rock  breaking,  400,  402, 

403 

Team  operation  on  basement  excava- 
tion, 469 

Templet  excavators,  use  on  drainage 

works,  327,  328 

use   on   irrigation  works,   323, 
324 

Templet  levee  builder,  use  on  flood 
prevention  and  flood  pro- 
tection works,  360 

Tennessee,  use  of  dipper  dredge, 
381 

Tile  trench  excavation,  454 


540 


INDEX 


Tile  trench  excavators,  138 

bibliography,  143 

Buckeye  tile  ditcher,  126,  455 

capacity,  129 

cost,  129 

engine,  121,  122 

excavating  chain,  122 

excavating  cost,  130,  455,  456, 
457 

excavating  wheel,  127 

Hovland  tile  ditcher,  138 

operation,  128 

sizes,  129 

use  in  Indiana,  456 

use  in  Ohio,  455 

use  in  Wisconsin,  456 

wheel  type,  142 
Tools  for  hand  excavation,  2 

for  loosening,  2 
Tower  cableway,  159 

bibliography,  164 

boiler,  159 

cable,  161 

capacity,  163 

Carson-Lidgerwood     cableway, 
160 

cost,  163 

description,  159 

engine,  159 

limitations,  164 

operating  cost,  162 

operation,  161 

use  on  canals,  414 

use  in  sand  and  gravel  pits,  504 

use  on  trench  excavation,  451 

use     in    Washington,     D.    C., 

451 
Tower  excavator,  152 

bibliography,  164,  165 

bucket,  154,  155 

capacity,  155 

cost,  158 

double,  capacity,  157 

use    on     Chicago     Drainage 

Canal,  416 
use  in  Mississippi,  364 

excavating  cost,  158,  415,  416 

operation,  154 

power  equipment,  153 


Tower  excavator,  use  in  Louisiana, 

364 
use  on  New  York  State  Barge 

Canal,  415 

Traction  ditcher,  73,  74 
Transportation     cost     with     dump 

wagons,  348 
Transportation         of        excavated 

material,     from    elevating 

graders,  280 
from   steam   shovels,    48,    284, 

286 

Traveling  derrick,  104 
bibliography,  108 
boiler,  105 
boom,  106 
bucket,  106 
capacity,  107 
cost,  107 
engines,  105 

excavating  cost,  107,  442,  443 
operation,  106 
trucks,  104 
use  in  Indiana,  442 
use  in  Kentucky,  443 
use  on  trench  excavation,  442, 

443 
Trench  excavation,  436,  437,  439, 

440,  441,  442,  443,  445 
use  of  continuous  bucket  ex- 
cavators, 445,  446,  447 
use  of  grab-bucket  excavators, 

441 
use  of  locomotive  crane,   442, 

443 

use  of  power  shovels,  437,  439 
use  of  scrapers,  437 
use  of  traveling  derrick,  442,  443 
use  of  trestle  cable  excavator, 

449 
use  of  trestle  track  excavators, 

450 
Trench  excavators,  see  excavator  in 

question 

bibliography,  143 
Buckeye  ditcher,  126,  448 
Carson,  131 
Carson-Lidgerwood     cableway, 

133 


INDEX 


541 


Trench  excavators,  Chicago,  122, 446 

Hovland  tile  ditcher,  138 

Parsons,  121 

Pawling     and     Harnischfeger, 
447 

Potter,  135 

use  in  Illinois,  446 

use  in  Pennsylvania,  447 
Trestle  cable  excavator,  130 

boiler,  131 

capacity,  133 

Carson  trench  machine,  131,  449 

Carson-Trainor  excavator,  133 

description,  130 

engine,  131 

excavating  cost,  133,  450 

operation,  132 

specifications,  134 

traveler,  132 

trestles,  131 

tubs,  132 

use      in      British      Columbia, 
Canada,  449 

use  on  trench  excavation,  449 
Trestle  track  excavator,  135 

buckets,  136 

capacity,  137 

car,  136 

description,  135 

operating  cost,  137 

operation,  136 

Potter  trench  machine,  135 

use  in  Illinois,  450 

use  on  trench  excavation,  450 
Tunnel  excavation,  515 
Tunneling,  bibliography,  525 
Turbine  traction  grader,  265 
Twentieth  century  grader,  19 
Two-wheel  grader,  19 

operating  cost,  19 

use  on  drainage  works,  326 

use  in  Mississippi,  326 

Underground  mine  excavation,  521 
bibliography,  525 
use  of  rock  excavation,  521 
use  of  shoveling  machines,  522, 
523 

Utah,  use  of  steam  shovel,  312 


Vulcan     steam    shovel,    313,    350, 
500 

Wagon  loaders,  242 

Wagons,  use  with  elevating  grader, 

280 

Walking    drag-line    excavator,    ca- 
pacity, 104 
cost  of  operation,  104 
description,  102 
method  of  operation,  104 
operating  equipment,  103 
Walking  scoop  dredge,  76 
bucket,  79 
description,  76 
method  of  operation,  79 
power  equipment,  77 
Washington,  D.  C.,  use  of  cableway 

excavator,  451 
Washington,  use  of  hydraulic  dredge, 

369,  386 

use  of  ladder  dredge,  340 
Water-pipe  trench  excavator,    120, 

130 

Weeks  drag-line  shovel,  95 
Weight,  see  excavator  in  question 
Wheel  excavators,  146 

Austin  wheel  ditcher,  150 
bibliography,  151 
Buckeye  traction  ditcher,  146 
capacity,  150 
cost,  148 

excavating  cost,  151 
operating  cost,  150,  331 
operation,  147 
power  equipment,  147 
specifications,  149 
weight,  149 
Wheel  scrapers,  10 
cost,  11 
description,  11 

Maney  four-wheel  scraper,  12 
operating  cost,  11,  13,  273,  274, 

305,  404,  460 
sizes,  11 
use    on   basement    excavation, 

458 

use  on  Chicago  Drainage  Canal, 
404 


542 


INDEX 


Wheel  scrapers,  use  in  Connecticut, 

458 
use   on    flood    prevention   and 

flood  protection  works,  345, 

346 

use  in  Wyoming,  346 
use    on   railroad    construction, 

272 
weight,  11 


Wheel  scrapers,  working  capacities, 

11,  13,  273 
Wisconsin,    use    of   ladder   dredge, 

384 

use  of  steam  shovels,  506 
use  of  tile-trench  excavator, 

456 

Wyoming,   use   of   wheel   scrapers, 
346 


•i 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  SO  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $1.OO  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


OEC  20  1937 

§  *  a  i        —  —  *—  r    -I  ft  4  > 

JAN    tD  1943 

rtB     i^943 

APR  26  jQ43 

MAY   TO  1943 

LD  21-95m-7,'37 


- 


22ii 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


